• The sixth century BC saw the rise of Buddhism, Jainism, and other religious sects, which was destined to bring to an end the unquestioned supremacy of Vedic Culture. They mainly originated in the middle Gangetic plains

Emergence of Heterodox Religious Sects

• The sixth century BC marked a significant period in Indian history concerning the development of alternative belief systems. 
• During this time, there was a noticeable opposition to the ritualistic and orthodox ideas propagated by the Brahmanas.
• This resistance paved the way for the emergence of various non-conformist religious movements, such as Jainism and Buddhism, which found patronage from different rulers.

Reasons Behind the Emergence of New Religions

Several factors contributed to the rise of these new non-conformist religions:

• Expensive Rituals: The Vedic religious practices had become intricate and burdensome, filled with numerous meaningless ceremonies, prompting a need for simpler alternatives.
• Discriminatory Systems: The later Vedic culture was characterized by a rigid caste system, leading to a hierarchical structure with the proliferation of castes and sub-castes. This discriminatory system became a driving force for the quest for alternative religious paths.
• Social Transformations in the Sixth Century BC
• The prevalent social conditions during the sixth century BC were marked by the subjugation of women and Shudras, leading to widespread distress among ordinary people. Notably, the growing influence of Brahmanas further exacerbated these inequalities.
• Dominance of Brahmanas: During this period, the significance of sacrifices and Yajnas solidified the dominance of Brahmanas in society. Acting as both priests and authoritative figures, they held a monopoly on performing sacred religious rites.
• Emergence of New Social Groups: The expansion of cultivated land gave rise to new states and social groups, gaining substantial economic power. The merchant class and affluent agricultural householders opposed the social positions imposed by Brahmanas based on heredity.
• Supremacy of Scriptures: Vedic literature, diverse and specialized in various aspects, was written in Sanskrit, a language accessible only to Brahmanas. This linguistic barrier prompted a yearning among the common people for a new, comprehensible language to understand their religion and literature.
• Rise of Non-Vedic Sects: In response to these social and linguistic challenges, various non-Vedic sects or religions emerged in the sixth century BC. These movements catered to the aspirations of Vaishya and non-Brahmanical powerful individuals and groups.

Jainism:

• Jain tradition claims antiquity predates Aryan Brahmanism. The succession of teachers, known as Tirthankaras, played a crucial role in Jainism.
•  The 24 Tirthankaras include Rishabhanath, Ajinatha, and Aristanemi, with Rishabhanath considered the first and Vardhamana Mahavira the last.
• Teachings of ParshvanathaThe 23rd Tirthankara, Parshvanatha, emphasized four principles: Satya, Ahimsa, Asteya, and Aparigraha.
•  Renouncing his throne at 30, he attained enlightenment after 84 days of penance, living to 100 years.

Vardhamana Mahavira

• Vardhamana Mahavirahe 24th Tirthankara, Vardhamana Mahavira, introduced celibacy (Brahmacharya) to his teachings.
•  After 13 years of penance, he achieved Kevala Jnana, the highest spiritual knowledge, at Jimbhikagrama village. 
• Known as Mahavira, he preached for 30 years, passing away at Pava at the age of 72.

Philosophy of Jainism

• Jainism believed in the theory of Syadvada (Theory of Conditional), i.e., the Theory of Relativity of Knowledge. It is believed that there is no absolute answer to a question. Every object exists in relation to other objects. In one way, it is only an extension of Anekanta ontology but a separate system of logic.
• The main features of Jaina philosophy remain in its dualistic metaphysics, which states that there are two categories of living:
  • Conscious being (Jiva)
  • Non-living beings (Ajiva

Other important aspects of the philosophy of jainism

List of 24 Tirthankaras

Principles of Jainism (Doctrines)

Householders were expected to uphold five vows:

• Ahimsa (Non-violence)
• Satya (Truthfulness)
• Asteya (Non-stealing)
• Brahmacharya (Celibacy)
• Aparigraha (Non-possession of property)
• Parshvanath introduced the first four principles, while the fifth one was later added by Lord Mahavira.
• Jainism emphasizes asceticism and penance as essential for breaking free from the cycle of Karma. Therefore, true salvation (Liberation) can only be achieved by renouncing the worldly life and embracing a monastic lifestyle.
•  Liberation is also attainable through pure and meritorious conduct, irrespective of one's social origin. The Three Jewels of Jainism, believed to guide the path toward liberation, include:
  • Right knowledge (Samyak Gyan)
  • Right faith (Samyak Darshana)
  • Right action (Samyak Charitra)

Sects/Schools of Jainism

Jaina Literature

Jaina literature can be categorized into two main types:

Agama Literature:

• Sacred texts composed in Ardh-Magadhi.
• Includes:
• Acaranga Sutra (the initial text guiding Jain monks on monastic life).
• Sutrakrtanga.
• Sthananga.
• Samavayanga.
• Vyakhyaprajnapti.
• Jnatrdharmakathah.
• Upasakadasah.
• Antakrddaasah.
• Anuttaraupapatikadasah.
• Prasnavyakaranani.
• Vipakasruta.
• Drstivada (comprising 14 purvas).
• 12 Upangas (considered as sub-parts or auxiliary limbs of Angas).
• 6 Chedasutras (texts related to the conduct and behavior of monks and nuns).
• 4 Mulasutras (known as the Fundamental Rule Book).
• 2 Culikasutras (Book of Appendixes).
• The two major sects, Digambaras and Svetambaras, compiled different bodies of literature. While the works of the Digambaras have been lost over time, the canons of the Svetambaras, known as Sidhantha, consist of various available scriptures.

Non-Agama Literature

Major Jaina Languages

• Jaina languages encompass Jain, Prakrit, Sanskrit, Gujarati, and Kannada. It is noteworthy that a significant portion of early Kannada literature and numerous Tamil works were authored by Jains.

Jaina Architecture

• The earliest evidence of Jaina architecture can be traced in the caves (viharas) of Odisha, including Khandagiri, Udayagiri (first century BC), Hanthi Gumpha (first century BC), and Ellora (11th and 12th century AD) in Maharashtra.
• Jaina temples in Dilwara, Rajasthan, were constructed by Solanki rulers, and dedicated to Jain Tirthankara. Renowned for their unique and distinct style, these temples are entirely crafted from white marble.
• The Ranakpura Jaina temple, built in the 15th century AD, is attributed to the first Tirthankara Adinath and features the Chaumukh design of architecture.
• Notable examples of Jaina architecture include the 983 AD Statue of Gomateshwara (Bahubali) in Shravanabelagola, Karnataka, as well as temples in Gwalior, Khajuraho, Deogarh, Chanderi, among others, showcasing the rich heritage of Jain architecture.
• The 84-foot-high Statue of Rishabhdeva, constructed in the 12th century AD, stands at Bawangaja in the Badwani district of Madhya Pradesh.

Royal Patrons of Jainism

Important terms Related With Jainism

• Posadha: The practice of fasting by Jaina members on full moon and new moon days.
• Sallekhana: The religious practice of voluntarily fasting to death by gradually reducing food and liquid intake, also known as santhara.
• Avasarpini: The descending order of the six periods in the Jaina cosmic cycle.
• Theravada: The second section of the Jaina Kalpasutra contains a list of schools (anonas) and their leaders.
• Ajnanavada: The Jaina doctrine of agnosticism or skepticism, consisting of 67 kinds.
• Mahavratas: Five principles observed by Jain monks.
• Anuvratas: Less rigorous principles to be followed by Jainism followers.
• Utsarpini: The ascending order of the Jaina cosmic cycle.
• Susama-Susama: The first cosmic cycle of Jainism, considered a very happy and virtuous period.
• Dusama-Dusama: The sixth and last period of the Jaina cosmic cycle, a wretched period.
• Trisastisalaka Purushacharita: The longest poem composed by Jaina scholar Hemachandra, dealing with the deeds of 63 enlightened men, including 24 Tirthankaras.

Important Philosophies in Jainism

• Kaivalya (Kevala Jnana): Omniscience in Jainism, representing complete understanding or supreme wisdom.
• Asrav: The inflow of karmas to the soul occurring at every second in life.
• Samvara: The stoppage of the influx of material karmas into the soul consciousness.
• Nirjara: Shedding or removal of accumulated karmas from the soul, essential for breaking free from samsara (cycle of birth-death-rebirth) and achieving moksha (liberation).

Decline of Jainism

• Concept of Ahimsa: The Jaina emphasis on non-violence, taken to impractical extremes, such as avoiding medicine, contributed to the decline.
• Practicality Issues: The impractical aspects of certain principles, like abstaining from medicine, led to a decline in Jainism in India.
• Adoption of such practices failed to gain popularity among the common people, and there was no support from later kings.

Buddhism

•  Buddhism, as a religion and philosophy, encompasses various traditions, beliefs, and practices primarily rooted in the teachings of Buddha.
•  Lay followers of Buddhism were referred to as Upasakas.

Gautama Buddha

•  Buddhism was established based on the teachings and life experiences of Siddhartha Gautam, born in 563 BC in the Shakya Kshatriya clan at Lumbini near Kapilvastu in the Piprahwa district of Nepal.
• At the age of 29, he renounced his life of wealth in favor of asceticism and intense self-discipline.
• Sujata, a farmer's wife, offered Gautama Buddha a bowl of kheer (a milk rice pudding) after he ended his six years of asceticism.
• Enlightenment occurred under a peepal tree in Bodhgaya, in modern Bihar, following 49 days of meditation.
•  The first sermon was delivered in a deer park at Sarnath, addressing his initial disciples, including Mahanama and Koudanna.
•  Khema, one of Queen Bimbisara's queens, is considered the first female disciple of Gautama Buddha.
• According to his teachings, Nirvana could be achieved by freeing oneself from the cycle of birth and death.

Philosophy of Buddhism

• The Doctrine of Karma is the essential part of the teachings of Buddha.
• It emphasizes on the moral life of an individual.
• It neither accepted nor rejected the existence of God. It rejected the Vedas and Vedic rituals and even the caste system.
•  It didn't believe in the permanence of soul. It emphasized on Ahimsa.
•  With the reference to the cultural history of India, the term Parampita refers to perfections whose attainment led to the Bodhisattva path.

Symbols Representing Events of Buddh’s Life

Buddhist Doctrines

• The Buddha, as a pragmatic reformer, aimed primarily at achieving liberation from the harsh realities of sorrows and sufferings.
• Thus, he articulated the Four Noble Truths (Arya Satya) as follows:
  • Dukkha: The world is replete with sorrows.
  • Samudaya: Desire is the fundamental cause of all sorrows.
  • Nirodha: Nirvana can be attained by overcoming desires.
  • Magga/Marga: There exists a path for the cessation of sorrows.

Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga)

• The Eightfold Path, or Ashtangika Marga, presented by Buddha, provides guidance on the righteous way of life to attain Nirvana.
• This path is the middle way, steering clear of extremes like excessive luxury or severe austerity.
• The middle path ultimately leads to Nirvana, signifying not only the cessation of desire but also the attainment of a state of perfect tranquility.

Three Gems (Triratnas)

• The three Gems of Buddhism represent three fundamental aspects of the Buddhist faith and practice, namely:
  •  Buddha (the enlightened)
  •  Dhamma (doctrine)
  •  Sangha (order)

Five Precepts of Buddha (Panchshila)

• Refrain from killing, emphasizing respect for life.
• Abstain from theft.
• Avoid sexual misconduct.
• Refrain from falsehood.
• Abstain from intoxication.

Buddhist Monastic Community

• Gautama Buddha established an organized and disciplined community for his followers known as Sangha.
• Any individual, regardless of gender, who has renounced personal belongings, could join the Sangha on the basis of equality.
•  Initially, Sangha did not allow women, but following requests from Ananda (a disciple) and Gautami (foster mother), the doors were opened for women.
• To commence, one had to pledge allegiance to (Buddha-Dhamma-Sangha), undergo head shaving (mundana), and don the yellow attire.
• Subsequently, the individual could undergo initiation, known as Upasampada.
• After Upasampada, the person was accepted as a member of Sangha and was expected to adhere to the code of conduct (dasha-shila). 
• This code included refraining from alcohol consumption, avoiding untimely meals, abstaining from dance and songs, eschewing the use of perfumes, forgoing mattresses for sleep, avoiding gold and silver ornaments, and abstaining from adultery, among other principles.

Famous Monks at the Time of Buddha

Buddhist Councils

Sects of Buddhism

• Buddhism, much like Jainism, encountered internal differences and conflicts, resulting in its division into three main sects:

(i) Hinayana or Lesser Wheel:

• Followers adhered to the original teachings of Buddha, pursuing individual salvation through self-discipline and meditation without engaging in idol worship.
• Hinayana, a religion devoid of a deity, positioned Karma in place of God, with Nirvana seen as the extinction of all.
• The oldest school, Sthaviravada (Theravada in Pali), and its more philosophical Sanskrit counterpart, Sarvastivada, asserted the existence of all things, both physical and mental, including a critical branch called Sautantrika.

(ii) Mahayana or Greater Wheel:

• Devotees believed in the transcendence of Buddha and aspired to achieve salvation for all through Buddha's grace and the assistance of Bodhisattvas, embracing idol worship.
• Nirvana, in Mahayana, was viewed not as a negative cessation but as a positive state of bliss.
• Mahayana comprised two primary philosophical schools, Madhyamika and Yogachara, with the former, led by Nagarjuna, adopting a middle ground between Hinayanism's realism and Yogacharya's idealism.
• The Yogachara School, founded by Maitreyanatha, completely rejected Hinayanism's realism in favor of absolute idealism. 

(iii) Vajrayana or Vehicle of Thunderbolt:

• Followers believed that salvation could be best achieved through the acquisition of magical power, termed Vajra, with the chief divinities being the Taras.
• This sect gained popularity in Eastern India, particularly in Bengal and Bihar.

Bodhisattvas:

• In Mahayana Buddhism, a Bodhisattva is an individual capable of reaching Nirvana but chooses to delay it out of compassion for suffering beings, akin to the concept of Incarnations in Hindu mythology.
• Bodhisattvas are recurring figures in Buddhist literature and art.

Famous Buddhist Scholars

Buddhist Literature

The teachings of Buddha were gathered and categorized into three volumes known collectively as the Tripitaka.

These three volumes include

• Sutta Pitaka: A compilation of Buddha's teachings presented in a dialogue format, primarily intended for the common people.
• Digha Nikaya (Collection of Long Discourses of the Buddha)
• Majjima Nikaya (Collection of Medium-Length Discourses of the Buddha)
• Samyutta Nikaya (Compilation of thematic discourses)
• Anguttara Nikaya (Compilation of discourses grouped by content narration)
• Khuddaka Nikaya (Compilation of poetic works in the Pali Canon)
• The Vinaya Pitaka: This section contains rules and regulations for monastic discipline for monks. Known as the Basket of Discipline, the Vinaya Pitaka is the oldest and smallest of the three sections of the Tripitaka. It provides guidelines for monks to lead a monastic life.
• The Abhidhamma Pitaka: This section contains profound philosophies derived from Buddha's teachings.
• The Jataka: It is a collection of over 500 poems that describe the previous births of Buddha.
• The Buddhavamsa: This section contains legends and verses about the 24 Buddhas who preceded Gautama in earlier times.
• Milinda Panho: It comprises discussions between Menander and the Buddhist Monk Nagasena.
• Ceylonese Chronicles: This section contains information about Dipavamsa (Island Chronicle), Mahavamsa (Great Chronicle), and Culavamsa (Lesser Chronicle).

Buddhist Architecture

•  Buddhist architecture developed in the Indian subcontinent in the third century BC.
•  Three types of structures are associated with the religious architecture of early Buddhism: monasteries (Viharas), stupas, and shrines or prayer halls (Chaityas).

• Cave temples, such as those at Ajanta and Ellora, have preserved the form, porch, and interior arrangements of ancient monasteries and temples. Initially serving as both monasteries and temples, they later became more elaborate, providing accommodation for sleeping, eating, and studying.
• The decoration of Buddhist sites became progressively more elaborate through the last two centuries BC, introducing human figures, particularly on stupas. 
• The representation of the image of Buddha in human form began in the first century AD, marking the commencement of image worship in India and influencing the development of temples in Hinduism.
•  The major schools of Buddhist art were Gandhara, Mathura, and Amravati, each contributing distinctive types of sculptural art in the Indian subcontinent.
• The oldest form of Buddha's statue is attributed to the Gandhara School of Art.
•  Other notable Buddhist architectural monuments in India include the Nalanda Mahavihara or University, a complex of several monasteries that accommodated students from various regions, and evidence suggests that all three Buddhist doctrines (Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana) were taught here.

Buddhist Mudras

•  Abhaya Mudra: This mudra (gesture) represents protection, peace, benevolence, and the dispelling of fear.
• Bhumisparsha Mudra: This gesture calls upon the Earth to witness Shakyamuni Buddha's enlightenment at Bodhgaya.
• Dharmachakra Mudra: The Dharmachakra Mudra represents a central moment in the life of Buddha when he preached his first sermon after enlightenment in Deer Park in Sarnath.
• Dhyana Mudra: The Dhyana Mudra (meditation mudra) symbolizes the concentration of the good law and the Sangha.
• Varada Mudra: The Varada Mudra (favorable mudra) signifies offering, welcome, charity, giving, compassion, and sincerity.
• Vajra Mudra: The Vajra Mudra (thunder mudra) represents the gesture of knowledge.
•  Vitarka Mudra: The Vitarka Mudra (mudra of discussion) symbolizes the gesture of discussion and the transmission of Buddhist teachings.
• Gyana Mudra: The Gyana Mudra (mudra of knowledge) is performed by touching the tips of the thumb and the index finger together, forming a circle, with the hand-held palm inward towards the heart.
• Karana Mudra: The Karana Mudra is the gesture that expels demons and removes obstacles such as sickness or negative thoughts.

Buddhism and Brahmanism

• Brahmanism is the religion that evolved from the historical Vedic religion, based on the Vedas and Upanishads, and a product of the ritualistic system led by Brahmin priests in Hindu society. Buddhism, on the other hand, developed from the teachings and philosophy of life of the Buddha.
• Brahmanism strongly emphasizes rituals as prescribed in the aforementioned scriptures to lead a good life, whereas Buddhism rejects all rituals and emphasizself-development/self-exploration through the dhamma, the precepts, the practice, the Four Truths, and the Eightfold Path.

Decline of Buddhism

• By the 12th century AD, Buddhism had become practically extinct in India, falling victim to the challenges posed by Brahmanism, against which it had initially struggled. Over time, Buddhist monks became disconnected from the mainstream of people's lives as they shifted from Pali (the language of the people) to Sanskrit (the language of intellectuals).
• The rapid growth of heterogeneous religions compelled the Vedic religion to reflect on their belief systems. Consequently, reforms were made in the once-rigid, ritualistic Vedic religion, transforming it into a people-oriented system.
•  By the 12th century AD, Buddhism had become practically extinct in India, succumbing to the challenges posed by Brahmanism, against which it had initially fought. The Buddhist monks became disconnected from the mainstream of people's lives as they abandoned Pali, the language of the people, in favor of Sanskrit.

Differences between Buddhism and Jainism

• Jainism placed emphasis on lay and common followers, while Buddhism primarily relied on the Sangha and its monks. The approach to attaining salvation in Jainism was extreme, whereas in Buddhism, it was relatively moderate. While Jainism remained confined to India, Buddhism rapidly spread to foreign lands.
• Jainism adopted a more liberal stance toward women.
• Jainism believed in the existence of the soul, whereas Buddhism did not.
• Buddhism rejected the concept of god or deity, while Jainism affirmed the existence of gods.
• Jainism emphasized Ahimsa, whereas in Buddhism, Ahimsa encompassed liberal sentiments and practical behavior.

Other Heterodox Sects (600-300 BC)

• According to Buddhist literary sources, around 62 heterodox sects existed in India in the sixth century BC. Some important ones include:

Prelims Facts

• Parshavanatha, the Jain Tirthankara was associated mainly with which place?

- Varanasi [UPPSC (Mains) 2016]

•  Where was Mahavira Swami born ?

- Kundagrama [UPPSC (Pre) 2004, BPSC (Pre) 2011]

• Who became the first follower of Mahavira?

- Tamali [BPSC (Pre) 2005, UPPSC (Pre) 2008]

•  The Salvation place of Mahavirji, the originator of the Jain religion is located at which place?

- Pavapuri [BPSC (Pre) 2018,

•  The doctrine of three jewels i.e., Right Belief, Right Conduct, and Right Knowledge is the crowning glory of which religion?

- Jainism [UPPSC (Pre) 2004, BPSC (Pre) 2020]

• The term 'Samadhi' Maran' is related to which philosophy?

- Jain Philosophy ICGPSC (Pre) 2015)

• With reference to the religious practice in India, the Sthanakavasi sect belongs to

- Jainism [IAS (Pre) 2018]

• Which place is known as a place of pilgrimages because of being related with Parshavanatha?

- Sammed Shikharji [UPPSC (Pre) 2002)

• Mahamastakashishekha' a great religious event is associated with whom?

- Bahubali [IAS (Pre) 2009]

• In which language was the earliest Jain literature compiled?

- Prakrit [UPPSC (Pre) 2006]

•  Svetambara Agama was finally edited at the Jain Council of

- Vallabhi [UPPSC (Mains) 2008]

•  Which sacred Buddhist place was situated on the River Niranjana?

- Bodh Gaya [UPPSC (Pre) 2012

Self Check

1. Parshvanatha, the Jain Tirthankara was associated mainly with which of the following places?

UPPSC (Mains) 2016

(a) Varanasi

(b) Kaushambi

(c) Giribraja

(d) Champa

2. Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched?

UPPSC (Pre) 2021

Tirthankaras                                    Nirvana Places

(a) Rishabhanatha                                Ashtapad

(b) Vasupujya                                   Sammed Shikharji

(c) Neminath                                             Urjayanta

(d) Mahavira                                                 Pavapuri

3. Which of the following statements) is are applicable to Jain doctrine?

UPPSC (Pre) 2013

1. The surest way of annihilating Karma is to practice penance.
2. Every object, even the smallest particle has a soul.
3. Karma is the bane of the soul and must be ended.

Select the correct answer by using the codes given below.

(a) Only 1 

(b) 2 and 3

 (c) 1 and 3

 (d) All of these

4. Which of the following doctrines are associated with Jainism?

RAS/RTS (Pre) 2021

1. Anekantavada
2. Sarvastivada
3. Sunyavada
4. Syadvada

Select the correct answer by using the codes given below.

(a) 1 and 4

(b) 2 and 4

(c) 1, 2 and 3

(d) 1 and 2

5. Souls are not only the property of animal and plant life, but also of rocks, running water and many other natural objects not looked on as living by other religious sects.

The above statement reflects one of the core beliefs of which one of the following religious sects of ancient India? IAS (Pre) 2023

(a) Buddhism

(b) Jainism

(c) Shaivism

(d) Vaishnavism

6. In which one of the following regions was

Dhanyakataka, which flourished as a prominent Buddhist centre under the Mahasanghikas, located?

(a) Andhra

(b) Gandhara

(c) Kalinga

(d) Magadha

7. With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following statements.

IAS (Pre) 2017

1. Sautrantika and Sammitiya were the sects of Jainism.
2. Sarvastivadin held that the constituents of phenomena were not wholly momentary, but existed forever in a latent form.

Which of the statements) given above is/are correct?

(a) Only 1

(b) Only 2

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

8. Read the following statements related to Jaina literature and choose the appropriate option.

CGPSC (Pre) 2020

1. The Svetambara Canon included the 12 Angas.
2. According to Svetambara tradition, the Angas were complied at a council held at Vallabhi.

(a) Both the statements are true.

(b) Statement 1 is false but Statement 2 is true.

(c) Both the statements are false.

(d) Statement 1 is true, but statement 2 is false.

9. With reference to Indian history, consider the following texts.

1. Nettipakarana
2. Parishishtaparvan
3. Avadanashataka
4. Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana

 Which of the above are Jaina texts?

(a) 1, 2 and 3

(b) 2 and 4

(c) 1, 3 and 4

(d) 2, 3 and 4

10. The oldest sculpture of Buddha is made in which style?

BPSC (Pre) 2020

(a) Gandhara style

(b) Mathura style

(c) Mauryan style

(d) Gupta style

11. With reference to the cultural history of India, consider the following pairs.

IAS (Pre) 2020

1. Parivrajaka-Renuciant and Wanderer
2. Shramana-Priest with a high status
3. Upasaka-Lay follower of Buddhism

Which of the pairs given above are correctly matchea?

(a) 1 and 2

(b) 1 and 3

(c) 2 and 3

(d) 1, 2 and 3

12. With reference to the cultural history of India, which one of the following is the correct description of the term 'Paramitas'?

IAS (Pre) 2020 written

(a) The earliest Dharmashastra texts aphoristic (Sutra) style.

(b) Philosophical schools that did not accept the authority (Sutra) style.

(c) Perfectly (Suase tainment led to the Bodhisaty

(d) Powerful merchant guides of early medieval South India.

13. Consider the following.

1. Deification of the Buddha
2. Treading the path of Bodhisattvas
3. Image worship and rituals

Which of the above is/are the feature/features of Mahayana Buddhism?

(a) 1 and 2

(b) 2 and 3

(c) Only 3

(d) All of these

14. With reference to the history of ancient India, which of the following was common to both Buddhism and Jainism?

IAS (Pre) 2020

1. Avoidance of extremities of penance and enjoyment
2. In difference to the authority of the Vedas.
3. Denial of the efficacy of rituals.

Select the correct answer by using the codes given below.

(a) Only 1

(b) 2 and 3

(c) 1 and 3

(d) All of the above

15. With reference to ancient India, consider the following statements.

IAS (Pre 2023

1. The concept of Stupa is Buddhist in origin.
2. The stupa was generally a repository of relics.
3. The stupa was a votive and commemorative structure of Buddhist tradition.

How many of the statements given above are correct?

(a) Only one

(b) Only two

(c) All three

(d) None

Know Right Answer

1 (a)

2 (b)

3 (d)

4 (a)

5(b)

6 (a) 

7 (b)

8 (d)

9 (b)

10 (a)

11 (b)

12 (c)

13 (d)

14 (b)

15 (b)