The medieval period in India marked a significant phase in the evolution of science and technology, characterized by a synthesis of traditional Indian knowledge and the influx of new ideas from Islamic and European sources. This era witnessed the emergence of institutions, technological workshops, and notable contributions in mathematics, biology, chemistry, astronomy, medicine, and agriculture.
1. Educational and Technological Institutions
Medieval India saw the establishment of educational institutions such as Maktabs and Madrasas, reflecting the influence of Arab countries. These institutions played a crucial role in transmitting knowledge and royal patronage was extended to support them. Alongside these educational centers, large workshops known as karkhanas were set up to produce provisions, equipment, and stores for the royal household and government departments. These karkhanas not only served as manufacturing centers but also doubled as hubs for technical and vocational training, nurturing the skills of young artisans and craftsmen.
2. Advancements in Mathematics
The medieval period in India witnessed notable contributions to the field of mathematics. Mathematicians like Narayana Pandit, known for works like "Ganitakaumudi" and "Bijaganitavatamsa," made significant strides. In Gujarat, Gangadhara authored treatises like "Lilavati Karan Deepika" and "Suddhantadipika," which provided essential rules for trigonometric functions, including sine, cosine, tangent, and cotangent. Nilakantha Somasutvan produced "Tantrasangraha," a work that contained rules for trigonometric functions, further enriching mathematical knowledge.
3. Explorations in Biology
Advancements in the field of biology were also made during this period. Hamsadeva compiled "Mriga-Pakshi-Shastra '' in the 13th century, which offered a general account of various animals and birds, particularly those related to hunting. Jahangir, in his work "Tuzuk-i-jahangiri," recorded observations and experiments on breeding and hybridization, contributing to the understanding of the natural world.
4. Chemical Applications
Chemistry played a vital role in the medieval period, particularly in the production of paper and gunpowder. The technique for papermaking remained relatively consistent across the country, differing only in the raw materials used for pulp preparation. The Mughals possessed knowledge of gunpowder production and its application in gunnery. The "Sukraniti," attributed to Shukracharya, detailed the preparation of gunpowder using saltpeter, sulfur, and charcoal in varying ratios for different types of guns. "Ain-i-Akbari'' mentioned regulations for perfumes in the office of Akbar, demonstrating the diverse applications of chemistry during this time.
5. Astronomical Commentaries
In the realm of astronomy, medieval India saw the emergence of numerous commentaries on established astronomical theories. Notable astronomers like Mehendra Suri and Paramesvara contributed to the development of astronomical instruments and theories. Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh-II of Jaipur made significant strides in patronizing astronomy by establishing the famed astronomical observatories, known as "Jantar Mantar," in Delhi, Ujjain, Varanasi, Mathura, and Jaipur.
6. Medicine and Healing Traditions
While the Ayurveda system of medicine did not progress as vigorously as in ancient times due to a lack of royal patronage, some significant treatises emerged. Works like the "Sarangdhara Samhita '' and "Chikitsasamgraha" offered valuable insights. The "Sarangdhara Samhita" included the use of opium in its materia Medica and urine examination for diagnostic purposes. Additionally, the Siddha system of medicine, prevalent in Tamil Nadu, focused on life-prolonging compositions rich in mineral medicines.
The Unani Tibb system of medicine flourished in India during this period, with works like "Firdausu-Hikmat" and "Tibbi Aurangzeb" summarizing Greek and Indian medical knowledge. The "Musalajati-Darshikohi" of Nuruddin Muhammad dealt with Greek medicine and incorporated a substantial portion of Ayurvedic materia Medica.
7. Agriculture and Introduction of New Crops
Agriculture in medieval India retained its traditional practices, but the period also witnessed the introduction of new crops and horticultural plants by foreign traders. Plants such as tobacco, chillies, potatoes, guava, custard apple, cashew, and pineapple were brought to India during the 16th and 17th centuries. Notably, the systematic technique of mango-grafting was introduced by the Jesuits of Goa during the 16th century.
The medieval period also marked a shift towards the systematic measurement and classification of land, which greatly benefited both the rulers and the agricultural sector.
The medieval period in India was marked by a unique blend of indigenous knowledge and external influences, resulting in significant advances in science and technology. The establishment of educational institutions, the development of mathematics, breakthroughs in biology and chemistry, progress in astronomy, contributions to medicine, and agricultural innovations collectively enriched the intellectual landscape of the time.
