India and Pakistan (Indo-Pak War, Kargil War, Shimla Agreement, Tashkent Declaration and Agra Summit)

India-Pakistan War (1965)

The 1965 war marked a significant chapter in India's foreign relations, particularly during the post-Nehru era under Lal Bahadur Shastri's leadership. It presented a formidable challenge for Shastri's administration.

The war, though undeclared, had far-reaching implications. Despite the conflict, it failed to provide a resolution to the longstanding Kashmir issue, which had been a constant source of tension between India and Pakistan. The roots of the war can be traced to several factors:

1. Volatility in Kashmir (1965): The situation in Kashmir grew increasingly unstable as followers of Sheikh Abdullah and other factions sparked unrest in the region. This created an environment that Pakistan perceived as conducive to intervention.
2. Military Arsenal and Strategic Timing: Pakistan had equipped itself with advanced military weaponry, largely acquired from the United States. Sensing an opportunity, Pakistan sought to strike before India could fortify its defenses, especially in the aftermath of the 1962 Sino-Indian War.
3. Closer Ties with China: Pakistan's strengthened alliance with China bolstered its confidence. This alliance aimed not only to isolate India geopolitically but also to lend strategic support.

The war, therefore, emerged from a complex web of regional dynamics, longstanding disputes, and strategic calculations. It underscored the intricate challenges faced by India's leadership in the realm of foreign relations.

Tashkent Declaration

The Tashkent Declaration was a crucial agreement brokered between India and Pakistan with the mediation of the Soviet Union. The declaration encompassed several key points:

1. Withdrawal and Restoration: Both India and Pakistan committed to withdrawing their forces from the occupied territories and restoring the pre-war positions.
2. Repatriation of Prisoners: A significant aspect of the declaration was the agreement to repatriate prisoners of war, signifying a humanitarian aspect of the accord.
3. Commitment to Peaceful Means: India and Pakistan pledged to resolve their differences through peaceful dialogue, refraining from the use of force.

Despite these important provisions, the Tashkent Declaration could not bring a resolution to the central issue of Kashmir. It highlighted the complexity and longstanding nature of this dispute.

Following the Indo-Pakistani war, it became evident that only a handful of countries, including Malaysia and Singapore, openly supported India. Even the Soviet Union, while reiterating Kashmir's integral status within India, adopted a posture of neutrality in relation to holding Pakistan accountable.

The Tashkent Declaration therefore played a crucial role in immediate conflict resolution but fell short of addressing the deeply rooted Kashmir dispute. It underlined the challenges of international diplomacy and the intricate dynamics of regional geopolitics.

Foreign Policy under Indira Gandhi

Indira Gandhi's tenure as Prime Minister of India was marked by a pragmatic approach to foreign policy, aiming to reestablish India's standing on the global stage. Here are some key aspects of India's foreign policy under her leadership:

1. Non-Alignment with a Realistic Bent: While Indira Gandhi adhered to the non-alignment principles, her policy was more grounded in realpolitik. She focused on safeguarding India's interests and was willing to forge strategic alliances when necessary.
2. Global Recognition: Indira Gandhi's active involvement in international affairs garnered her recognition as a prominent global leader. Having been exposed to international diplomacy from an early age as Nehru's daughter, she was well-versed in the complexities of international relations.
3. Bangladesh Crisis (1971): The Bangladesh Liberation War and the subsequent creation of Bangladesh was a pivotal moment in Indira Gandhi's foreign policy. India provided support to the Bangladeshi freedom struggle against the Pakistani military crackdown in East Pakistan. The conflict culminated in the surrender of the Pakistani army and the formation of Bangladesh.
4. Indo-Soviet Treaty: To counterbalance the support provided by the US and China to Pakistan during the Bangladesh Crisis, India signed a 20-year Indo-Soviet Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Cooperation. This treaty solidified ties with the Soviet Union and ensured mutual support in the event of military threats.
5. Shimla Agreement (1972): The Shimla Agreement, signed between Indira Gandhi and Pakistan's Zulfikar Ali Bhutto in 1972, formalized the cessation of hostilities and outlined the framework for future bilateral relations.

Indira Gandhi's foreign policy approach reflected a blend of pragmatism and a commitment to India's strategic interests. Her leadership during critical moments, particularly the Bangladesh Crisis, underscored her astuteness in navigating complex geopolitical scenarios.

Shimla Declaration (1972)

The Shimla Declaration, signed between India and Pakistan in 1972, played a pivotal role in shaping the post-war relationship between the two nations. Here are the key outcomes of the Shimla Agreement:

1. Territorial Concessions: India agreed to return most of the territories it had occupied during the conflict, except for certain strategic points.
2. Respect for the Line of Control (LoC): Pakistan committed to respecting the Line of Control (LoC) in Jammu and Kashmir, acknowledging it as a de facto border.
3. Bilateral Dispute Resolution: Both countries agreed to resolve their disputes through bilateral negotiations, emphasizing direct dialogue over third-party mediation.
4. Repatriation of Prisoners of War: India pledged to repatriate Pakistani prisoners of war, contingent on Pakistan's agreement with Bangladesh following its independence.

The outcomes of the Shimla Agreement had several significant implications:

1. Restored Pride and Self-Respect: The successful handling of the Bangladesh Liberation War and the Shimla Agreement helped restore India's national pride and self-respect, which had been deeply affected by the 1962 Sino-Indian War.
2. Resolution of Refugee Crisis: The war had led to a massive refugee problem, with millions seeking shelter in India. The repatriation of around 10 million refugees to their homes in the newly formed Bangladesh eased the strain on India's resources.
3. Emergence as a Regional Power: India's decisive victory and effective diplomacy during the war bolstered its standing as a regional power in South Asia.
4. Elevated Global Standing: The international community recognized India's effective handling of the conflict, enhancing its prestige and influence on the global stage.

The Shimla Declaration, while not resolving all the underlying issues between India and Pakistan, set a framework for bilateral engagement and conflict resolution. It remains a significant milestone in the history of India's foreign relations.