Sources of Ancient Indian History

• The 'History' is the study of the human past that is left behind by humans, unlike a study of just battles and kings as is generally understood. The word 'History' is defined as the studies of humanities that lays the foundation for all Social inquiry to explore what happened in the past.

Introduction:

• Historical sources are the conduits through which information about the past is conveyed. These sources play a crucial role in unraveling the tapestry of history.
• The study of Ancient Indian history provides insights into the origins, development, and locations where the earliest cultures in our country flourished. Various groups, such as the pre-Aryans, Indo-Aryans, Greeks, Scythians, Hunas, Turks, and more, made India their home, each contributing significantly to the richness and substantial enormity of Indian culture.

Historical Sources:

• The historical sources of Indian history encompass a vast array of physical objects, resources, and spaces that define a civilization, culture, and tradition. 
• These sources manifest as traces of the past, taking the form of graves, building remnants, inscriptions, secular and religious literature, chronicles, traveler's accounts, coins, monuments, palaces, forts, royal farms, court bulletins, historical letters, and more. Each artifact serves as a valuable piece in reconstructing the narrative of bygone eras.

Archaeological Sources:

• The ancient inhabitants of India have left behind numerous material remnants that play a crucial role in establishing a chronological sequence of cultural evolution. The study of these material remains is facilitated through the field of Archaeology.

• The significance of excavations is exemplified by the findings from Harappan excavations, revealing details about settlement layouts, house structures, pottery, tools, implements, and dietary habits of the ancient inhabitants.
• In South India, unique burial practices involved interring individuals along with their tools, weapons, pottery, and other belongings beneath massive stones, leading to the creation of Megaliths. These large single stone structures, whether constructed as burial sites or commemorative memorials, stand as some of the earliest man-made structures, offering valuable evidence of prehistoric cultures.

Major Archaeological Sites and their Findings

Mounds:

• Mounds, rounded domes on the surface, offer glimpses into the activities of past civilizations, showcasing signs of great cultural achievements. The buried remnants, scattered across the country, hold major parts of these historical remains. Different types of mounds reveal insights into a single culture, multi-culture, and various major and minor cultural civilizations. Excavations can be either vertical or horizontal, with vertical digs providing a periodwise sequence of cultures.

Monuments:

• Monuments, including buildings, temples, statues, and pottery, serve as major archaeological sources offering valuable and authentic historical information about the ancient period. 
• These structures, significant from a cultural perspective, illuminate social life, religious beliefs, and the knowledge of the people of the time. Temples, forts, palaces, stupas, and monasteries bring the past to life, playing a crucial role in connecting us to our ancient history. Excavations in Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan, Lothal, and Taxila have revealed unknown historical discoveries.

Ruins:

• Ruins, the remnants of buildings or cities in disrepair or decay, provide insights into social, economic, and religious conditions prevalent in the past.

Potteries:

• Potteries are crucial archaeological sources determining the spread of culture and civilization. From pre-historic to historic periods, various types of potteries like Painted Grey Ware, Black and Red Ware, Red Ware, and Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) signify different eras and play a vital role in reconstructing history.

Seals:

• Seals, carved or engraved cylinder seals found in the Indus Valley Civilization, were used as labels on trade goods or for other purposes. Their discovery in Mesopotamia and Central Asia suggests extensive trade during that period.

Coins:

• Coins, flat discs or pieces of metal with official stamps, serve as important artifacts for studying history. Ancient Indian coins made of copper, silver, gold, or lead, including Punch-marked coins or Aahat coins, provide insights into various aspects of Indian history through the study of numismatics.
• Coins made of silver and copper with irregular shapes, sometimes square or rectangular, date back to the sixth and second centuries BC. In the absence of a banking system in ancient India, people stored their money in earthenware and brass vessels.
• Many hoards have been discovered containing not only Indian coins but also those belonging to the Roman Empire found in various parts of India. Coins play a vital role in providing valuable information about economic history as they serve as a medium of exchange.
• Some coins bearing the word "negama" were issued by guilds or associations of merchants and craftsmen with the rulers' permission, reflecting the influence of craft and commerce. Coins also depict kings, gods, and religious symbols, shedding light on the art and religion of that time.

Evolution of Coins in India:

• Cowry shells were initially used as commodity money.
• Punch-marked coins were prevalent during the Nanda dynasty of Magadha and continued during the Mauryan period.
• Indo-Greeks, ruling from 180 BC to around AD 10, issued the largest gold coins, popularizing the practice of depicting the ruler's bust on coins.
• Kushana kings were the first to issue gold coins with a standardized form, weighing between 12 grams and 15 grams.
• The Satavahanas were the first rulers to issue coins of lead and potin (base silver).
• Gupta rulers issued the highest number of gold coins, notable for their purity of gold content.

Sculptures and Paintings:

• Paintings and sculptures provide insights into the culture and religious beliefs of ancient Indian people, dating back to the Harappan period. 
• These art forms were crafted from various materials like stone, steatite, clay, terracotta, lime, bronze, ivory, and wood. Some adorned the walls of temples, while others were individual sculptures for various purposes, including toys and entertainment.

Tools:

• Tools, such as trowels, shovels, spades, brushes, buckets, and sieves, have been integral to human civilization, shaping societies. Archaeologists use these tools to uncover evidence of lifestyle and food habits from the past.

Graves and Burials:

• Burial sites and graves provide valuable insights into the life patterns, socio-economic conditions, and culture of past generations. Historians focus on these sites to study the time periods and extract unknown details from inscriptions and symbols on memorials.

Scientific Dating Techniques:

Various scientific dating techniques help establish the age of rocks or fossils:

• Radiocarbon Dating: Analyzing the content of Carbon-14 in organic materials.
• Pollen Analysis (Palynology): Developing a pollen chronology to determine agricultural practices.
• Cation-Ratio Dating: Determining the exposure duration of rock surfaces, such as stone artifacts and cliffs.

Inscriptions:

• Inscriptions refer to permanent writings engraved on hard surfaces like stone, metal, or terracotta, holding a significance even greater than that of coins. The study of inscriptions is known as Epigraphy, while the examination of the writing styles used in inscriptions is termed Palaeography.
• Inscriptions in India can be found on seals, stone pillars, rocks, copper plates, temple walls, and bricks or images. 

Historical Importance of Bogazkoi and Bisitun Inscription:

• The Bogazkoi inscription, located in Asia Minor, Turkey, dates back to 1400 BC and mentions Vedic Gods like Indra, Varuna, Mitra, and the two Nasatyas or Ashwini Kumaras. 
• On the other hand, the Bisitun (or Behistun) inscription, a monumental rock inscription in the Zagros Mountains near modern-day Kermanshah (Iran), was commissioned by Darius I, the king of the Achaemenid Empire, around 520 BC. It provides fragmented information about the western parts of India, including details about its climate and geography.

Important Inscriptions and their Rulers

Inscriptions: Key Points

• The earliest inscriptions date back to around 2500 BC and are found on the seals of Harappa, but their decipherment remains elusive.
• Ashoka, the Mauryan king, was the first to issue deciphered inscriptions. Most of his inscriptions, in Prakrit language and Brahmi script, shed light on his religious and administrative policies. 
• Some in the North-West were written in Kharosthi, while scripts like Aramaic and Greek were used in Afghanistan for local comprehension.
• James Prinsep, a civil servant in British India, successfully deciphered the Brahmi script in 1837. Brahmi was written from left to right, akin to Hindi, while Kharosthi followed a right-to-left orientation.
• Ashokan inscriptions play a crucial role in understanding his religious and administrative strategies. By the first century BC, kings began granting land to religious figures, with the Satavahana kings of the Deccan being pioneers in this practice.
• Poetic compositions praising kings and patrons are termed Prashastis in inscriptions.

Literary Sources:

• Writing in India traces back to 2500 BC, but our oldest compiled texts emerged in AD 400, primarily written on sheep leather and wooden tablets. Although ancient Sanskrit manuscripts are widespread, they are predominantly found in South India, Kashmir, and Nepal.

• Literary sources can be categorized into three groups: Religious literature, Non-Religious or Secular literature, and Foreign Accounts/Travelogue.

Religious Literature:

• Ancient Indian texts predominantly explore religious themes, including the Vedas, the Epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata), and the Puranas. While shedding light on the social and cultural conditions of ancient times, applying them contextually remains challenging.

Shruti and Smriti:

•  Vedic literature is broadly divided into two categories—Shruti and Smriti.
• Shruti comprises sacred texts like the Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads, transmitted orally for centuries.
• Smriti, meaning "that which is remembered," constitutes the post-Vedic Classical Sanskrit literature.

Vedas:

• The earliest religious texts are the Vedas, written between 1500 600 BC, forming Hinduism's oldest scriptures.
• Rig Veda, the oldest, consists of prayers, 1028 hymns (Suktas), and 10 books (Mandalas), addressing philosophical questions and societal virtues.
• Sama Veda (1200-800 BC) is the root of Indian classical music and dance with 1549 verses.
• Yajur Veda (1100-800 BC) compiles ritual-offering mantras/chants performed by priests alongside a ritual performer.
• Atharva Veda (1000-800 BC) focuses on daily life procedures, spells, and magical formulas.

Brahmanas:

• Vedic shruti works attached to the Samhitas of the Vedas, Brahmanas (900-700 BC) compile teachings on rituals and hidden meanings of sacred texts, shedding light on contemporary society.

Aranyakas:

• Philosophically interpreting rituals, Aranyakas derive their name from "Aranya," meaning the forest. These texts, also known as the Forest Book, were primarily written for hermits and students residing in jungles, serving as the concluding portions of the Brahmanas. Key Aranyakas include Aitareya, Taittiriya, and Maitrayani.

Upanishads:

• Totaling 108, Upanishads are religious and philosophical treatises, representing the last phase of the Vedic revelation. They contain spiritual knowledge aimed at fostering supreme understanding. Prominent Upanishads include Brihadaranyaka, Katha, and Chandogya.

Vedangas:

• Composed between 600-200 BC, Vedangas are supplementary texts aiding the proper understanding and recitation of the Vedas. 
• The six Vedangas are Shiksha (Phonetics/Pronunciation), Kalpa Sutras (Sacrificial ritual), Vyakarana (Grammar), Nirukta (Etymology), Chhanda (Metrics), and Jyotisha (Astronomy).

Ramayana and Mahabharata:

• Compiled by AD 400, Ramayana and Mahabharata are two epics attributed to sage Vyasa. The Mahabharata, originally containing 8,800 verses, expanded to 24,000 verses and included the Bhagavad Gita. Ramayana, originally with 6,000 verses, expanded to 24,000 verses.

Sutras:

• In the post-Vedic period (600 BC onwards), ritual literature on moral values called Sutras emerged. Shrautasutra records lower varna people serving the upper three varnas and grand public sacrifices. Grihyasutras prescribe domestic rituals and were compiled between 600-300 BC.

Puranas:

• Numbering 18, the Puranas are essential texts providing detailed information about ancient Indian history. Matasya, Vayu, and Vishnu Puranas contain significant information on ancient Indian dynasties, serving as the primary source after the Battle of Mahabharata. Puranas contribute to the cultural history of Ancient India, offering a chronological account of different dynasties.

Dharmashastras:

• Belonging to the category of law books, Dharmashastras prescribe duties for different social groups and set out codes of conduct for various offenses like theft, murder, and adultery. 
• An estimated 18 to about 100 Dharmashastras were written, reflecting the moral and legal guidelines of the time.

Buddhist Literature

• The oldest Buddhist writings emerged several centuries after Gautama Buddha's demise, predominantly falling under the sutta or sutra genre.
• Canonical and non-canonical literature exist within Buddhist texts.
• The earliest Buddhist texts, written in Pali language, are known as Tripitakas, comprising Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka, and Abhidhamma Pitaka.
• Sutta Pitaka contains over 10 thousand suttas or sutras related to Buddha and his companions, including discussions from the first Buddhist council held shortly after Buddha's death (around 400 BC).
• Vinaya Pitaka focuses on monastic rules for monks and nuns, serving as the Book of Discipline.
• Abhidhamma Pitaka delves into the philosophy and doctrine of Buddhism present in the suttas, lacking systematic philosophical treatises.
• In the 5th century AD, Buddhaghosha wrote a commentary on the Tripitaka.

Jataka

• The Jatakas are crucial non-religious Buddhist literature, recounting stories of the Buddha's previous births.
• It is believed that before becoming Gautama, the Buddha experienced over 550 births, with each birth story termed a Jataka. 
• These stories provide insights into the social and economic conditions between the 5th and 2nd centuries BC.
• Other significant Buddhist texts include Mahavamsa, Dipavamsa, Buddhacharita, and Lalitavistara.
• Mahavamsa details royal dynasties in the Indian subcontinent, including Sri Lanka.
• Dipavamsa discusses the arrival of Buddha's teachings and preachers in Sri Lanka.
• Buddhacharita, by Asvaghosa, is an epic Sanskrit text narrating Gautama Buddha's life.
• Lalitavistara is revered in Mahayanic writings, focusing on the Buddha's biography.

Jaina Literature

• Jaina literature, collectively termed Agamas, consists of canonical texts based on Lord Mahavira's teachings. Written in Prakrit, these texts were compiled in the 6th century AD at Vallabhi in Gujarat.
• Angas form a significant part of Jaina literature, containing the philosophical concepts of the Jainas.

Non-Religious Literature

• Non-religious or secular literature delves into themes such as basic codes of conduct, laws, socio-drama, love, and romance.

Historical Writings

Ancient Indian historical writings include:

• Ashtadhyayi: An essential work on grammar written by Panini around 700 BC, it aids historical reconstruction by determining prevalent language and grammar in the contemporary period. Ashtadhyayi also provides guidance for correct usage in spoken language and sacred contexts.

Arthashastra

• Kautilya's Arthashastra is a renowned source for studying statecraft, political theories, economic policies, and military strategies in ancient India. It also aligns with the Philosophical School of Charvaka, advocating a completely materialistic perspective on the universe and human existence.
• Mahabhasya Patanjali's Mahabhasya, a book on Sanskrit Grammar dating back to the second century BC, serves as a commentary on selected rules from Panini's Ashtadhyayi and Katyayana's Varttika Sutra.

Works of Kalidasa

• Kalidasa, a poet and playwright during the Gupta period, crafted notable works like Abhijananashakuntalam, Ritusamhara, and Meghadutam. Beyond their creative brilliance, these works offer glimpses into the social and cultural life of the Gupta age.

Rajataringini

• Kalhana's Rajataringini, written in the 12th century AD, provides a Sanskrit account of various monarchies in Kashmir before the arrival of Islam, serving as a crucial historical chronicle for the region.

Harshacharitam

• Harshacharita, written by Banabhatta in praise of Harshavardhana, is a significant non-religious text offering biographical details. However, caution is warranted due to the tendency to exaggerate patron achievements.

Sangama Literature

• Sangama literature, written in Tamil during 300 BC - AD 300, serves as a major source for studying South Indian society, economy, and polity. Comprising short and long poems, it praises various heroes and includes epics like Silappadikaram and Manimekalai.

Foreign Accounts and Travelogues

• The Greeks, Romans, Chinese, and Arabs provide rich historical data about India. These foreign accounts complement indigenous literature and offer vivid descriptions of what these travelers witnessed.

Greco-Roman Source

• Many Greek and Roman accounts of the first and second centuries mentioned many Indian ports and commodities of trade between India and the Roman empire. Description of some Greco-Romani writers are given below.

Herodotus

• He is generally considered as the Father of History. He was an ancient Greek historian who gained fame for his monumental work called the Histories (440 BC). 

Diodorus

• He was a Greek Historian who wrote Bibliotheca Historica. His description was based on an account by Megasthenes.

Megasthenese

•  In the court of Chandragupta Maurya, a Greek Ambassador called Megasthenese came, who wrote Indica.
•  Its original text is lost but parts of it have been preserved in fragments quoted by subsequent Greek writers.

Periplus of the Erythraean Sea

• The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea is an account of ancient travel to India via the Red Sea written by William H Schoff.

• It mentions India by Hippalus, which historians believe occurred about AD 47

Justin:

• Marcus Junianus Justinus, a Roman historian of the third century, penned the Epitome, providing intricate details about Alexander the Great's conquest of India.

Ptolemy:

• Around AD 150, Ptolemy composed Geographia, a comprehensive work consolidating knowledge of the world's geography within the Roman Empire during the second century. He also vividly described the Indo-Roman trade in his writings.

Pliny:

• Pliny the Elder, a Roman author, naturalist, and philosopher in the early Roman Empire, presented detailed information about India's history. In AD 77, he referred to India as the repository of the world's gold.

Chinese Scholars:

• Buddhist Chinese travelers Fa-Hsien and Hsuan Tsang journeyed to India, primarily to explore Buddhist shrines and study Buddhism.
•  Fa-Hsien, in the fifth century, depicted India during the Gupta era, while Hsuan Tsang provided a similar account in the seventh century during the reign of King Harshavardhana. 
• Hsuan Tsang also described Nalanda University's glory in detail.
• Song-Yun, a Chinese Buddhist monk, chronicled the Gandhara dynasty, and Lama Taranatha, a Tibetan historian, furnished a detailed account of Buddhism in India, offering rare historical data and interesting Indian folklore.
• I-Tsing, a seventh-century Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, left an account of his travels to India, providing insights into the social and religious conditions of the society.

Arab Travellers:

• Beginning in the eighth century AD, Arab travelers started documenting their experiences in India. 
• Sulaiman-al-Tajir, the first Arab traveler in the mid-ninth century, wrote about the Palas, Pratiharas, and Gurjaras.
• Al-Masudi, during AD 941-943, provided detailed information about the Rashtrakuta dynasty. Al-Biruni, a significant Arab author and scholar, meticulously wrote about various aspects of Indian life in his renowned book Kitab-ul-Hind, covering mathematics, geography, philosophy, religious practices, culture, traditions, and social conditions of contemporary India.
• Marco Polo: Venetian merchant and explorer Marco Polo traversed Asia along the Silk Road between 1271 and 1295, documenting his experiences in the Travels of Marco Polo.
• Ibn Battuta: A medieval Muslim traveler, Ibn Battuta authored one of the world's most famous travelogues, the Rihlah.

Contribution of Modern Historians

Prelims Facts

• Who was the first Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). Who is also known as the father of Indian archaeology?

- Alexander Cunningham [MPPSC (Pre) 2017

•  Which ministry deals with the Archaeological Survey of India as an accessory office?

- Ministry of Culture [JPSC (Pre) 2011]

• Which rock shelter of Vindhyas, a maximum number of human skeletons have been found?

- Ghagharia [UPPSC (Pre) 2016]

•  Three human skeletons in a single grave were discovered at which site?

- Damdama [UPPSC (Pre) 2016]

•  Bone ornaments in the Mesolithic context in India have been obtained from ...

- Mahadaha [UPPSC (Pre) 2010, UP RO/ARO (Mains) 2013]

•  The evidence of pit dwelling has been obtained from which site?

- Burzahom [UPPSC (Mains) 2011]

•  The evidence of burying the dog with a human body is found at which place?

- Burzahom [UKPSC (Pre) 2010]

• At which place did the earliest evidence of rice cultivation in Ganga Valley is found?

- Lahuradewa [UPPSC (Pre) 2008]

• Which was the first cereal used by man?

- Barley [UPPSC (Pre) 1997)

•  The Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) was christened at which site?

- Hastinapur [UPPSC (Mains) 2006]

•  The cultural remains from the Stone Age to Harappan Civilisation have been obtained from which ancient site?

- Mehrgarh [UPPSC (Pre) 2008]

•  The earliest evidence of man in India is found in which place?

- Narmada Valley [UKPSC (Pre) 2006]

• Where are the caves of Bhimbhetka situated?

- Obedullaganj-Raisen [MPPSC (Pre) 2013]

• Which Indian archaeologist first visited 'Bhimbhetka caves' and discovered the pre-historic significance of its painting?

- VS Wakankar [MPPSC (Pre) 2020, UPPSC (Pre) 2020] 

• In the Mesolithic context, evidence of animals, domestication has been found at which site?

- Adamgarh [UPPSC (Pre) 2008]

• Which site provides evidence of the domestication of animals in the Mesolithic period?

-Bangor [UPPSC (Pre) 2018]

•  Which burial practice of Chalcolithic communities was characterized by burial within precincts of houses after chopping off the feet of a cadaver?

- Jorwa UPSC (Pre) 2010]

•  Which script of ancient India was written from right to left

- Kharosthi [IAS (Pre) 1947]

• The Brahmi script was first deciphered by letters inscribed on

- Pillars [UPPSC (Mains) 2008]

•  The first scholar who read Ashokan edicts was

- James Prinsep [UPPSC (Pre) 2010]

•  Pre-Ashokan Brahmi script was found at

- Anuradhapura [UPPSC (Pre) 2008]

•  Which is the oldest Veda?

- Rig Veda [UPPSC (Pre) 2010]

•  Which Veda contains an account of magical charms and spells?

- Atharva Veda IJPSC (Pre) 2011]

• Upanishads are books on

- Philosophy [UPPSC (Mains) 2003]

• Nachiketa legend find mention in

- Kathopanishad [UPPSC (Mains) 2006]

•  King Aswapati of the Upanishadic period was the ruler of

-Kekaya [UPPSC (Pre) 1999]

•  The legend of Satyakama Jabala, which challenge the stigma of being an unmarried mother, is mentioned in

- Chandogya Upanishad [RAS/RTS (Pre) 2016]

• The manu smriti mainly deals with

- Laws [UPPSC (Pre) 2007]

• Sarga, Pratisarga, Uansa, Manvantara and Vanshanucharita are the indicators of

- Puranas [UPPSC (Pre) 2015)

• 'Rajatarangani' written by Kalhana is associated with

-History of Kashmir IMPPSC (Pre) 2012)

• Kautilya's Arthashastra is a book on

- Practice of statecraft BPSC Pre 2019

Self Check

1. Consider the following statements.

1. Historical sources refers to the objects that defines a civilisation only.
2. Forts, court bulletins and historical letters can be useful as sources.

Which of the statements) given above is/are correct?

(a) Only 1

(b) Only 2

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

2. The Harappan Civilisation discovered as the well flourished culture through its

(a) socio-culture variation 

(b) economic prosperity

(c) material sources

(d) All of these

3. Which type of potteries were in use during the Buddhist period?

(a) Black and Red Ware

(b) Painted Grey Ware

(c) Red Ware

(d) Northern Black Polished Ware

4. In ancient India, Punch-marked coins that were made of silver and copper were called

(a) Nishka

(b) Pana

(c) Aahat

(d) Kashhah

5. Consider the following statements.

1. Punch-marked coins were issued largely during Nanda and Mauryan period
2. Indo-Greek were the first ruler to issue largest Gold coins.
3. Kushanas and Sabas, both issue most standardised form of Gold coins.
4. Satavahanas and Kadambas were the first ruler to issue lead and brass coins.

Which of the statements) given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2

(b) 2 and 4

(c) 1, 2 and 4

(d) Only 3

6. The earliest inscriptions found in Indian subcontinent were in which among the following language?

(a) Pali

(b) Prakrit

(c) Assamaic

(d) Sanskrit

7. Consider the following statements.

1. The Bogazkoi inscription located in Afghanistan, dates back to 1400 BC.
2. The Bisitun inscription found in the Zagros Mountains, was written at the behost of Darius I during 520 BC.

Which of the statements) given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2

(b) Only 1

(c) Only 2

(d) None of these

8. Consider the following statements.

1. King Ashoka was the first person to issue inscription.
2. Brahmi script was first deciphered by Charles Wilkins.
3. Some inscriptions are composed by poets in praise of kings are called Prashastis.

Which of the statements) given above is/are correct?

(a) 2 and 3

(b) Only 3

(c) 1 and 3

(d) All of these

9. Consider the following statements.

1. The Brahmanas are Vedic Shruti works attached to the Samhitas.
2. The earliest form of Mahabharata was known as Bharata because it had only 24000 verses.
3. Great amount of information of ancient Indian dynasties found in Matsya, Vayu and Vishnu Puranas.

Which of the statements) given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2

(b) 2 and 3

(c) Only 3

(d) 1 and 3

10. Consider the following statements.

1. Abhijananashakuntalam, Ritusamhara and Meghadutam provide glimpses of the social and cultural life of the Gupta age.
2. Justin is considered as the Father of History.
3. Sulaiman-al-Tajir, the first Arab traveller referred to India as the sink of the world's gold.

Which of the statements) given above is/are not correct?

(a) 1 and 3

(b) 2 and 3

(c) Only 2

(d) Only 3

Know Right Answer

1(b)

2 (d)

3 (d)

4 (c)

5 (a)

6 (b)

7 (c)

8 (c)

9 (d)

10 (b)