The Vedic Age

• The Vedic Age of Ancient India is the 'heroic age' of Indian Civilisation. The period between 1500-600 BC and Indo-Aryans are believed to be the composer of Vedic texts. Vedas recorded not only the religion of the Vedic people but also details of their lives that gave us a look at their political, social, and economic patterns.

Origin of the Aryans

• The term "Aryan," signifying noble, was utilized by the Indo-Iranian people.
• According to a well-established and evidence-based theory, the Aryans, fair-skinned individuals, migrated from Eurasia and settled in ancient Iran and Northern India around 1500 BC.
• The initial settlement of Aryans in the Indian subcontinent occurred in the region known as the Land of the Seven Rivers. They entered the North-Western part of the subcontinent through Iran from Central Asia, subsequently moving Eastward into the Deccan Plateau through the plains around the Ganges River.
• While it's challenging to assert that all early Aryans belonged to a single race, their culture displayed a remarkable degree of similarity.

• The introduction of new literature, belief systems, and other Aryan influences deeply impacted socio-cultural and political life in India.
• Aryans spoke the Indo-European language, and their primary occupations included pastoral herding and agriculture.

The reasons behind the Rapid Expansion of the Aryans were as follows

• Chariot driven by horses.
• Weapons made of good quality bronze.
• The use of armor (Burman).
•  Use of a destructive machine called Purcharishnu

Origin Places of Aryans According to Some Scholars

Sources of the Vedic Age:

• We can explore the Early Vedic period through two primary sources: Literary and Archaeological sources. The literary sources, particularly the four Vedas—Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda—provide insights into the knowledge of the Vedic age.
•  In addition, ecological excavations conducted over the last 70 years in regions such as Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and Northern Rajasthan, along the Indus and Ghaggar rivers, have uncovered numerous Vedic settlements.

Early Vedic Age (1500-1000 BC):

• The Early Vedic Age, also known as the Rigvedic Age, aligns with the composition of Rigvedic hymns, estimated to be between 1500 BC and 1000 BC.

Geographical Extent:

• The Early Vedic period was established along the Sapta Sindhu (area of seven rivers) region.
• The seven rivers collectively known as Sapta Sindhu include Indus (Sindhu), Jhelum (Vitasta), Askini (Chenab), Purushni (Ravi), Vipasa (Beas), Sutudri (Sutlej), and Naditarna (Saraswati).
• In the Later Vedic period, Aryans occupied the upper Gangetic Doab.

Political Life:

Political life during the Early Vedic period was tribal and highly democratic.

• The tribal chief, known as Rajan, was central to the administrative machinery. The position was hereditary, and the king (Gopajanasya) acted as the protector of the tribe and cattle rather than ruling a specific territory.
• Various tribal assemblies such as Vidhata, Sabha, and Samiti emerged, exercising military and religious functions. Women occasionally attended these assemblies.
• The Doctrine of Divinity was not associated with kingship, with only one king, as described in Purushasukta, being termed as Ardhadeva (semi-divine) in Rig Veda.
• Important officers included Purohita, Senani, Kulpati (head of the family), Vishpati, Brajpati, Gramini, Sparsa (spy), and Duta (messenger).

Differences between Indus Valley People and Vedic People

Economic Life

• Rig Vedic people were predominantly pastoral. The cow (Gau) was the most important animal (mentioned 176 times in Rig Veda).

Various Terms Related to Cow

• Wealth in the early Vedic society was often expressed through gifts, with priests receiving offerings of cows and women slaves. The Rig Vedic texts emphasized the sacredness of cows through the term "Aghanya," urging their protection and care.
• Cattle breeding was the primary occupation, involving the domestication of horses, sheep, goats, dogs, and asses.
•  Agriculture played a secondary role, with references to barley (Yava) in Rig Veda, and a practice of shifting agriculture.
• Panis, the trading class, faced condemnation for their perceived greed and harsh demeanor. 
• Presentations, involving the exchange of courtesies, weapons, and cattle at the group level, were crucial for the economy.
• Economic stratification existed, although there were no explicit references to beggars, wage earners, or wages in the Rig Veda. The common metals in use were copper and bronze (Ayas), with recognized weights such as Nishkas, Hiranyapindas, and Manas.
• The prevalent pottery type was Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP), although Black and Red Ware types were known. The taxation system was undeveloped, and voluntary contributions, known as Ball, were made to the king.
• Wooden plows like Phala, Langala, and Sira were mentioned in the texts, reflecting agricultural practices.

Social Life:

• The early Vedic society was based on tribes, with social relations centered around kinship ties (gotra). Society was divided along clan lines, including kings, priests, and artisans within clan networks.
• The semi-nomadic and tribal nature of the society was evident, with Aryan tribals referred to as Janas, led by a chief known as Rajan/Gopa/Gopati. Jana was further divided into Vis (groups of villages), Grama (village), and Kulas (family).
• Inter-tribal conflicts were frequent, exemplified by the Battle of the Ten Kings mentioned in the Rig Veda. Sudas, the Bharata king, emerged victorious, establishing the supremacy of the Bharatas.

• The Rig Vedic society was largely egalitarian, with no caste division.
• Occupation was not birth-based, allowing members of a family to adopt different occupations.
• Varna, initially based on color, served as the basis for differentiation between Vedic and non-Vedic people.
• Thus, the Rig Veda mentions Arya Varna and Dasa Varna. (Here 'Dasa' means a group lom different from the Rig Vedic people. Later, Dasa came to mean a slave.)
• The warriors, priests, and ordinary people were the three sections of the Rig Vedic tribe. The Shudra category came into existence only towards the end of the Rig Vedic period. This means that the division of society in the early Vedic period was not rigid.
•  Shudra's word is first mentioned in the tenth book (late addition) of Rig Veda.

Position of Women

• Rig Vedic society was patriarchal, so the birth of daughters was not desired. But once born, they were treated with kindness.
• Child marriage was not practiced. Women can choose their husbands.
• Monogamy and Niyoga (a variant of widow re-marriage) were practiced. She could take part in the proceedings of the tribal assemblies called Sabha and Samiti.
• Some of the famous scholars of the Rig Vedic period were Vishwavara, Apala, Lopamudra, and Ghosha

Religious Life

•  Aryans were nature worshippers. It reflects naturalistic polytheism. Yajnas were also performed as a form of worship.
• There was a predominance of male Gods and very few Goddesses were mentioned. The aim of worship was for material gains.
•  Two drinks namely Soma and Sura were sanctioned by religion. Soma was drunk at sacrifices and Sura was disapproved by priests.
•  The Vedic religion was sacrificial in nature, where Sacrifices or Yajnas were performed by Vedic people for to following reasons to invoke the Gods,
•  in order to grant boons, victory in battles or 
•  for the acquisition of cattle, sons, etc.
• The growing importance of sacrifices in the Vedic society resulted in the growing importance of priests as well.

Important Vedic Gods

• The most important divinity in the Rig Veda is Indra, who played the role of a warlord, leading the Aryan soldiers to victory against the demons. He is considered to be the Rain God and is responsible for causing rainfall. The second position is held by Agni (Fire God).

Rig Vedic Gods and their Importance

Rivers mentioned in the Rig Veda

Later Vedic Age (1000 - 600 BC)

• Later Vedic Age (1000 - 600 BC) witnessed significant transformations in the realms of Politics, Economy, Society, and Religion, also referred to as the PGW (Painted Grey Ware) Iron Phase.

Geographical Expansion:

• The Aryans extended their influence from Punjab to cover Western Uttar Pradesh, including the Ganga-Yamuna doab. They inhabited the region between the Saraswati and Drishadvati Rivers.
• This geographical shift brought about notable changes in their social, political, economic, and religious structures.
• The later Vedas divided India into three main regions: Aryavarta (Northern India), Madhyadesa (Central India), and Dakshina Patha (Southern India).

Political Life

• The term "Jana," previously used to denote people or tribes in the Rig Vedic period, was replaced by "Janapada."
• The term "Rashtra," signifying territory, was introduced for the first time in later Vedic texts.
• Rig Veda and Atharva Veda reference the election of the Rajan through people's approval, while the Taittiriya Brahmana introduces the Theory of Divine Origin of Kingship.
• Caste exogamy and a rigid social hierarchy were established, with Brahmins and Kshatriyas occupying higher positions.
• During this period, the significance of the sabha surpassed that of the samiti, reflecting changes in the nature of tribal assemblies.

Five Types of State System

• Rajya (Central Kingdom) - Raja
• Bhojya (Southern Kingdom) - Bhoja
• Swarajya (Western Kingdom) - Svarat
• Vairajya (Northern Kingdom) - Virat
• Samrajya (Eastern Kingdom) - Samrat
• Although the number of central officers increased, a structured bureaucracy was absent, and the king did not maintain a standing army.

Important Ratnins and Other Important Official's Responsibilities

Economic Life

• The shift towards the Gangetic valley, facilitated by the use of iron and fire, led to significant developments in agriculture. Although cattle rearing continued, pastoralism was no longer the primary subsistence activity.
• Satapatha Brahmana detailed various stages of agriculture, including ploughing, sowing, reaping, and threshing. Both Kharif and Rabi crops were cultivated.
•  Rice (Vrihi) and wheat (Godhuma) became the principal crops, with barley (Yava) still in production.
• During this period, rice became a staple in the diet, and double cropping was practiced. The emergence of urban life was triggered by the increased importance of land, giving rise to new classes of iron smiths, chariot makers, and shipbuilders. The Painted grey ware culture also emerged during this period.
• Trading activities flourished, and the use of coins like Satamana, Krishnala, and Nishkas became prevalent. 
• While the taxation system was not fully developed, taxes were collected, and Sangrihitri likely oversaw the process. Bali, Bhaga (the oldest tax), and Shulka were the main taxes, gradually transforming from voluntary contributions to mandatory tributes.

Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Culture

• The PGW pottery, created using a wheel, featured well-levigated clay, a thin core, and a smooth, grey to ash-grey surface. The pottery was painted in black and sometimes in deep brown on both outer and inner surfaces, displaying 42 designs, with bowls and dishes being common types.
• Notable PGW sites included Atranjikhera (Etah district, Uttar Pradesh), Ahichhatra (Bareilly district, Uttar Pradesh), Noh (Bharatpur district, Rajasthan), Hastinapur (Meerut district, Uttar Pradesh), Kurukshetra (Haryana), Bhagwanpura (Kurukshetra district, Haryana), and Jakhera (Kasganj district, Uttar Pradesh).

Social Life

• The later Vedic period witnessed a transition from a pastoral to a sedentary agrarian society. Society became divided into four Varnas: Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.
• Male members of the upper three varnas were referred to as Dvija or twice-born. Child marriages became prevalent, and the upper three varnas were entitled to Upanayana (sacred thread ceremony), while Shudras were deprived of it and were not allowed to recite the Gayatri Mantra.
• The institution of Gotra was established, prohibiting marriages within the same Gotra, marking the institutionalization of this concept.

Purushasukta Theory

• Purushasukta is a late hymn of X Mandal of Rig Veda. It says that four persons originated from the body of the Purusha or the Primeval creator. These were as follows
  • Kshatriya 
  • Shishya 

Concept of Ashramas

• First introduced in the Altareya Brahmana, the concept primarily aimed at regulating the life of male members of the higher caste and comprises four stages:
  • Brahmacharya (Student life)
  • Grihastha (Householder)
  • Vanaprastha (Partial retirement)
  • Sanyasin (Complete retirement)

Position of Women

• During this period, there was a degradation in the status of women.
• Although women experienced a decline in their societal status, they were not denied the right to education.
• They were excluded from Upanayana and religious ceremonies and were not allowed to participate in assemblies like Sabhas and Samitis.
• Women were confined to household chores and held subordinate positions within the family structure.

Different Texts on Women in Later Vedic Period 

Religious Life:

• During this era, there was a shift in the prominence of early Vedic gods, with Indra and Agni losing importance, while Prajapati, the creator, gained significance. Additionally, Rudra, a minor deity in the Rig Veda, became more prominent, and Vishnu was recognized as the creator and protector of the Universe.
• Other deities, such as Marut (son of Rudra and personified as the Storm God), Surya (Sun God), and Aranyani (Forest Goddess), emerged in the later Vedic period. 
• Pushan, previously associated with protecting cattle, now became revered as the god of the Shudras. These changes in deity status reflect the transformation of tribes from pastoral groups to sedentary agriculturist communities.

Purpose of Yajnas:

• The purpose of Yajnas during this period served two main objectives. Firstly, they established the authority of chiefs over the people, and secondly, they reinforced the territorial aspect of the polity, as individuals from all over the kingdom were invited to participate in these sacrificial rituals.

Sacrifices in the Later Vedic Period:

• Public Yajnas like Rajsuyas, Vajapeya, and Ashvamedha were conducted on a grand scale, involving the entire community.
• Rajasuya Consecration Ceremony: This ritual conferred supreme power on the king and comprised five major ceremonies.
• Ashvamedha Horse Sacrifice: This ritual aimed to establish the king's supremacy over neighboring regions. The Aitareya and Satapatha Brahmana mention monarchs who performed this significant sacrifice.

Sixteen Samskaras:

• The Samskaras, or sacraments, are considered rituals intended to reform and sanctify the individual for whom they are conducted. The initial systematic delineation of the Samskaras is presented in the Grihya Sutras. The following provides a description of the sixteen Samskaras.

Forms of Marriage:

The Smritis delineate eight forms of marriages, as follows:

• Brahma: Marriage within the same class with a proper dowry.
• Daiva: Daughter given by the householder to the sacrificial priest as part of his fees.
• Arsa: The bridegroom presents a cow and a bull to the parents of the girl in this form of marriage.
• Prajapati: Girl married without a dowry.
• Gandharva: Marriage of a willing man and woman, often clandestine.
• Asura: Marriage by purchasing the girl from her custodian.
• Rakshasa: Marriage by capturing the girl.
• Paisacha: Marriage by abducting the girl when she is asleep, drunk, mentally perturbed, i.e., not in her full senses.

Marriages were categorized based on the Varna System:

• Anuloma Marriage: In which the wife is of a lower caste. It was permitted but not encouraged.
• Pratiloma Marriage: In which the husband is of a lower caste. It was completely forbidden.

Literature of the Vedic Period:

The Vedas:

• The term "Veda" is derived from the root word "Vid," which means to know, signifying knowledge par excellence.
• Vedas comprise hymns, prayers, charms, and sacrificial formulae.
• Vedas are called Apaurusheya (not made by man) and Nitya (existing in all eternity).
• The Rishis, to whom these books are ascribed, are known as Mantradrashta, meaning inspired saints who received the hymns directly from the supreme creator.
• Apart from its literary significance, the Vedas shed light on the political, religious, social, and economic aspects of the Vedic period.
• The X Mandala of the Rig Veda Samhita and the Sama, the Yajur, and the Atharva Veda Samhitas are the other Vedic texts written in the later Vedic phase.

Rig Veda (Compiled between 1500 BC to 1000 BC):

• It consists of 1028 hymns and is divided into X Mandalas (books).
• Mandalas II to VII are the oldest, known as family/books composed by Gritsamada Vishvamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bhardwaja, and Vashistha.
• Mandalas VIII and IX belong to the middle time.
• Mandalas I and X are the last to be compiled.
• In the IIIrd Mandala, composed by Vishvamitra, addressed to the solar deity Savitri, the famous Gayatri Mantra is found.
• The IXth Mandala is completely devoted to the Vedic God Soma (The Lord of Plants).

Sama Veda (Compiled between 1000 BC to 600 BC):

• Sama Veda is a compilation of hymns primarily taken from the VIIIth and IXth Mandalas of the Rig Veda. These hymns are set to tune for singing, giving rise to the Book of Chants. The origin of Indian music is traced back to this compilation. 
• The purpose of the hymns in Sama Veda was to be sung during the Soma sacrifice by the Udgatri priests. The Shakas of Sama Veda include Kauthuma, Jaiminiya, and Ranayaniya.

Yajur Veda (Compiled between 1000 BC to 600 BC):

• Yajur Veda provides guidelines for performing various sacrifices, primarily serving as a manual for the Adhvaryu priests. This Veda is presented in both verse and prose. It introduces the two royal ceremonies of Rajasuya and Vajapeya for the first time. Yajur Veda is divided into two parts:
• Krishna Yajur Veda (Black): This section contains hymns along with prose commentaries.
• Shukla Yajur Veda (White): This section includes only hymns.

Atharva Veda (Compiled between 1000 BC to 600 BC)

•  The Atharva Veda (Book of Magical Formulae) contains charms and spells in verse, toward off evils and diseases.
• It preserves many popular cults and superstitions. It is believed to be work of non-Aryans. It contains 731 hymns.
• Indian Medical Science called Ayurveda, its origin from Atharva Veda.

Upavedas

Sutra Sahitya

• The period of 600 BC to 300 BC is known as period of sutra, when various literatures of sutras were written. The sutras are short but very meaningful sentences, which despite being small contain wide meaning.

The Brahmanas

•  They are treatise relating to prayer and sacrificial ceremony. They are elaborate commentaries on the various hymns in the Vedas.
• The Brahmanas of the Rig Veda are intended fo the use of the invoking priest (Hotri).

• The story of the prince Videgha Mathava provides clear indication towards this geographical expansion.

Vedas and their Associated Brahmanas

The Aranyakas:

• Aranyakas, often referred to as forest books, derive their name from "Aranya," meaning forest. These texts delve into mysticism, exploring the symbolism of sacrifice and priestly philosophy.

The Upanishads:

• Upanishads, meaning "Be seated at the feet of the Guru to receive the teachings," provide profound philosophical and spiritual knowledge. They are also known as Vedanta. The Upanishads, totaling 108 in number, impart deep insights into philosophical and spiritual understanding.
• The concepts of Atman and Brahman are majorly explained by Upanishads.

• Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and the Concept of Rebirth: The notion of rebirth is initially presented in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, and it later finds a more detailed expression in the Chandogya Upanishads. As one of the oldest Upanishads, it lays the foundation for exploring spiritual concepts. Additionally, the Katha Upanishad recounts the enlightening dialogue between Nachiketa and Yama.
• Satyameva Jayate and Mundaka Upanishad: The powerful declaration "Satyameva Jayate" is drawn from the wisdom of the Mundaka Upanishad. Serving as the National Motto of India, it is prominently featured at the base of the National Emblem in Devanagiri script. Translated, it signifies "Truth Alone Triumphs."
• The Vedangas and the Sutra Period: The post-600 BC era, known as the Sutra period, witnessed the compilation of the Vedangas. Classified as Smriti, denoting literature transmitted by tradition and of human origin,
• There are six Vedangas that emerged during this time.

Kalpa Sutras are categorized into three distinct classes:

• Srauta Sutra: This class is dedicated to the elaborate rituals associated with major sacrifices like those of Agni and Soma. Alongside the Srauta Sutra, one finds the Sulva Sutra, which stands as the oldest treatise on Indian Geometry.
• Grihya Sutra: Focused on domestic ceremonies and sacrifices, the Grihya Sutra outlines the rituals to be observed by the householder within the confines of the home.
• Dharma Sutra: Dharma Sutra addresses the laws, manners, and customs applicable to people in general. It forms the foundational basis for Dharma Shastras, including the renowned Law of Manu.

Puranas:

• Puranas encompass a variety of materials such as stories, anecdotes, songs, and ballads. The shift in worship practices, transitioning from sacrifices to idol worship, is evident in the Puranas. There is also a notable emphasis on the visual representation of deities, contrasting with the earlier focus on worshiping abstract concepts.

Smritis:

• Smritis, also known as Dharma Shastra, are law books composed in Sloka form. Significant Smritis include Manav Dharma Shastra, Vishnu Dharma Shastra, Yajnavalkya Smriti, and Narad Smriti. 
• Among these, Manav Dharma Shastra, or Manu Smriti, holds the distinction of being the oldest and most renowned. Manu, considered the first king and lawgiver, is associated with this ancient and influential Smriti. 
• Additionally, there are later compilations of minor Smritis and commentaries, such as the Mitakshara.

Some Important vedic term

Prelims Facts

• Term 'a superior race is related to?

- Aryan |IAS (Pre) 1999)

• Which region is considered to be homeland of the Indo-Aryans?

- Central Asia [Punjab PSC (Pre) 2012)

• The famous 'battle of ten kings' as described in Rig Veda was fought on the bank of

- Parushni [UPPSC (Mains) 2008]

• Which river is identified with the vedic river Askini?

- Chenab River [UPPSC (Pre) 2010)

• The river that is referred as 'Matetama' 'Devitama' and Naditama Rig-Veda is

- Saraswati River [UPPSC (Mains) 2008)

•  Vedic River Kubha is known by which name?

- Kabul River [UPPSC (Pre) 2010]

• Parushni is the ancient name of which river?

- Ravi Kabul River [UPPSC (Pre) 2010]

• The Rigvedic tribal assembly associated with judicial function was called

- Sabha [JPSC (Pre) 2016]

•  In Rigvedic times, Punjab was known by which name?

- Sapt Sindhu [Punjab PSC (Pre) 2010]

•  The name 'Aghanya' mentioned in many passages of the Rig Veda refers to

- Cow [UPPSC (Pre) 2017]

• What does the term 'Yava' mentioned in Rig Veda is used for?

- Barley [UPPSC (Mains) 2008]

•  The Rigvedic 'Pani' belongs to the class of

- Traders [MPPSC (Pre) 2019, 2020]

•  In context of Indian culture, the term 'Rit' means?

- Natural Law [CGPSC (Pre) 2016]

Self Check

1. Which of the following inscriptions tells about the Aryan's movement from Iran to India?

UPPSC (Mains) 2009

(a) Mansehra

(b) Shabhazgarhi

(c) Boghazkoi

(d) Junagarh

2. What were the two assemblies during the early Vedic period?

WBCS (Pre) 2020

(a) Samiti

(b) Sabha

(c) Samiti and Sangam

(d) Both (a) and (b)

3. The famous 'Battle of the Ten King' as described in the Rig Veda was fought on the bank of

UPPSC (Mains) 2001

(a) Parushni

(b) Saraswati

(C) Vipasha

(d) Askini

4. The name 'Aghanya', mentioned in many passages of the Rig Veda refers to

UPPSC (Pre)

(a) Priest

(b) Women

(c) Cows

(d) Brahmanas

5. The religion of carly Vedic Aryans was primatily of

IAS (Pre) 2012, UPPSC (Pre) 2012

(a) Bhaku

(b) Image worship and Yajnas

(c) Worship of nature and Yajnas

(d) Worship of nature and Bhaku

6. Who among the following is regarded as War God in the Rig Veda?

IAS (Mains) 2011, UKPSC (Pre) 2016

(a) Agni

(b) Indra

(C) Surya

(d) Varuna

7. Which officer was known as "Bhagadugha' during Vedic administration?

UPPSC (Pre) 2023

(a) Chief Officer of Forests

(b) Revenue Collector

(c) Messenger

(d) Chief Officer of the Gambling Department

8. The Rig Vedic 'Pani' belong to which class of citizens?

MPPSC (Pre) 2019, 20

(a) Priests

(b) Iron smiths

(c) Gold smiths

(d) Traders

9. Which of the following statements about women's position is incorrect?

MPSC (Pre) 2013

(a) In Vedic period, women enjoyed higher position than men.

(b) Matriarchal system existed in some areas.

(c) Restrictions were imposed on women as an impact of Manu Smriti.

(d) As the concept of division of labour got accepted the position of women changed.

10. Who among the following women scholars were related to the Rig Vedic period?

MPSC (Pre) 2019

1. Vishwavara
2. Apala
3. Lopamudra
4. Ghosha

Choose the correct option using the codes given below.

(a) 1 and 2

(b) 1, 2 and 3

(c) 2, 3 and 4

(d) All of the above

11. Which one of the following Brahmana texts belongs to the Rig Veda?

MPPSC (Pre) 2017

(a) Aitareya Brahmana

(b) Gopatha Brahmana

(c) Shatapatha Brahmana

(d) Taittiriya Brahmana

12. Which of the following is a Samhita of Shukla Yajur Veda?

UPPSC (Pre) 2018

(a) Vajasaneyi

(b) Maitrayani
(c) Taittiriva

(d) Kathak

13. Match List I with List Il and select the correct answer by using the codes given below.

UPPSC (Mains) 2003

    A    B    C    D                             

(a) 4    2    1    3  

(b) 3    2    4    1

(c) 4    1    2    3  

(d) 2    3    1    4

14. From which Upanishad the word 'Satyameva Jayate' has been taken?

IAS (Pre) 2004, UPPSC (Pre) 2014

(a) Mundaka Upanishad

(b) Kathopanishad

(c) Chhandogyopanishad

(d) None of these

15. Read the following statements and choose the correct option.

CGPSC (Pre) 2022

1. Kapila is the earliest exponent of Samkhya system.
2. Kapila teaches that a man's life is shaped by ar the forces of nature and not by any divine agency.

Codes

(a) Both the statements 1 and 2 are true.

(b) Statement 1 is false, but statement 2 is true.

(c) Both the statements 1 and 2 are false.

(d) Statement 1 is true, but statement 2 is false.

16. With reference to the Puranas, which one of the following statements is correct?

UPPSC (Pre) 2023 

1. Information about the Mauryan dynasty is found in the Vishnu Puran.
2. Vayu Puran throws light on the Gupta's governance system.

(a) Both 1 and 2

(b) Only 2

(c) Neither 1 nor 2

(d) Only 1

Know Right Answer

1. (c)
2. (d)
3. (a)
4. (c)
5. (c)
6. (b)
7. (b)
8. (d)
9. (a)
10. (d)
11. (a)
12. (a)
13. (a)
14. (a)
15. (a)
16. (a)