French

Between 1664 and 1760, France emerged as one of the final prominent European maritime forces to venture into East India trade during the 17th century. However, this endeavor was fraught with challenges, particularly in contending with their longstanding rival, Britain, as evidenced by the three Carnatic Wars spanning from 1740 to 1763. Despite these obstacles, France managed to maintain a presence in India through strategic locations such as Pondicherry (1674), Karaikal (1739), Yanam (1723) along the Coromandel Coast, Mahe (1725) on the Malabar Coast, and Chandernagor (1673) in Bengal, which served as their last remaining enclaves in the region.

Rise of the French

• The French harbored a keen interest in East Indian trade from the early 16th century, although their actual arrival at Indian ports was delayed. 
• Notably, they were the final Europeans to venture into India for commercial endeavors. 
• During the reign of Louis XIV, his renowned minister Colbert laid the foundation for the Compagnie des Indes Orientales (French East India Company) in 1664, in which the king held a significant stake. 
• This company was granted a 50-year monopoly on French commerce in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. 
• Additionally, the French monarch bestowed upon the corporation a perpetual concession for the island of Madagascar, along with any other territories it might acquire. 
• Despite considerable investment and effort to revive the colonies in Madagascar, the results were meager. 
• However, in 1667, Francois Caron led an expedition to India, establishing a factory in Surat. Following this, Mercara, a Persian under Caron's leadership, founded another French outpost in Masulipatnam in 1669 after obtaining a patent from the Sultan of Golconda. 
• In 1673, Shaista Khan, the Mughal subahdar of Bengal, granted the French permission to establish a colony at Chandernagore near Calcutta.

The French Presence in India

• Under the rule of Sher Khan Lodi, ruler of Valikandapuram (under the Bijapur Sultan), Francois Martin, director of the Masulipatnam factory, was granted a colony site in 1673. 
• Subsequently, Pondicherry was founded in 1674, with Francois Martin assuming the role of French governor the following year, succeeding Caron. 
• The French East India Company also established plants across various regions of India, particularly along the coast. Key commercial centers included Mahe, Karaikal, Balasore, and Qasim Bazar. Francois Martin's leadership in Pondicherry from 1674 solidified its status as the French stronghold in India.

French East India Company

• Founded on September 1, 1664, to compete with English and Dutch trade ventures in the East Indies, the French East India Company faced challenges in establishing its presence in the Mughal Empire. 
• However, on September 4, 1666, they obtained permission from Emperor Aurangzeb to trade via the port of Surat. 
• Despite shifting focus to Pondicherry by 1683, financial difficulties persisted. 
• With the decline of the Mughal Empire, the French sought to protect their interests by forming alliances with local rulers in south India.
• However, conflicts with the Dutch and British hindered French efforts. 
• The Dutch briefly seized Pondicherry in 1693, and despite its return by the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697, Pondicherry continued to face challenges. 
• The outbreak of the War of Spanish Succession further impacted French operations in India, leading to the closure of facilities in Surat, Masulipatnam, and Bantam in the early 18th century. 
• Francois Martin's death in 1706 marked another setback for the French in India.
• Continual battles with the British, including during the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War, resulted in British control over French colonies in India. 
• Though returned to France by the Treaty of Paris in 1763, the French East India Company struggled financially. 
• The French Revolution terminated its monopoly on April 3, 1790, leading to its dissolution in 1794 after reorganization attempts failed.

The Anglo-French Struggle for Dominance

• While both the British and French initially arrived in India for trade purposes, they inevitably became entangled in Indian politics, each harboring ambitions to exert political influence in the region. 
• The competition between the two colonial powers in India echoed their longstanding rivalry throughout history, which intensified with the onset of the Austrian War of Succession and reached its climax during the Seven Years' War.
• The political landscape of South India in 1740 was characterized by uncertainty and complexity. Nizam Asaf Jah of Hyderabad was aged and preoccupied with conflicts against the Marathas in the western Deccan, while his subordinates speculated about the implications of his eventual demise. 
• Along the Coromandel Coast to the south of his domain, there was a notable absence of a strong monarch capable of maintaining the balance of power. 
• Instead, the region was comprised of remnants of the former Vijayanagara empire in inner Mysore, Cochin, and Travancore on the Malabar Coast, alongside smaller realms such as Madura (Madurai), Tanjore (Thanjavur), and Trichinopoly in the east (Thiruchirapally).
• The loss of Hyderabad would signify the decline of Muslim expansionism, prompting English adventurers to strategize accordingly. 
• This marked the beginning of the First Carnatic War (1740–1748).

The First Carnatic War (1740–1748)

Named by Europeans, the Coromandel coast and its surrounding regions were collectively known as Carnatic. The First Carnatic War emerged as a European extension of the Anglo-French conflict instigated by the Austrian War of Succession.

• The Battle of St. Thome, situated in Madras, is a notable event of the First Carnatic War. It pitted French forces against those of Anwar-ud-din, the Nawab of Carnatic, who sought English assistance.

Cause of the Conflict

• France, recognizing its comparatively weaker position in India, initially avoided escalating hostilities in the region. However, tensions arose when the English navy, led by Commodore Curtis Bennett, seized several French ships to provoke France.
• Responding to this provocation, the French Governor-General Marquis Joseph-Francois Dupleix sought aid from Anwar-ud-Din, the Nawab of Carnatic. In retaliation, the Nawab warned the British against attacking French territories, asserting his province's neutrality.
• In 1746, France retaliated by capturing Madras with support from a fleet dispatched from Mauritius, led by Admiral La Bourdonnais, the French ruler of the island. This action sparked a dispute between Dupleix and La Bourdonnais regarding the fate of Madras.

Resolution of the Conflict

• The disagreement between Dupleix, who proposed handing over Madras to the Nawab as compensation for violating neutrality, and La Bourdonnais, who sought to ransom the town to the British, persisted until Anwar-ud-Din intervened.
• Anwar-ud-Din dispatched an army of 10,000 soldiers, led by his son Mahfuzz Khan, to besiege the French at Madras. However, at the Battle of St. Thome on the banks of the Adyar River, a small French force under Captain Paradise triumphed over the larger Indian army led by Mahfuz Khan.
• The First Carnatic War concluded in 1748 with the signing of the Treaty of Aix-La Chapelle, which also marked the end of the Austrian War of Succession. Under this treaty, Madras was returned to the English, while the French acquired territory in North America.

Significance of the Conflict

• The First Carnatic War demonstrated to Europeans in India the effectiveness of a small, disciplined force against a larger Indian army. Additionally, it underscored the importance of naval power in the Anglo-French conflict in the Deccan.

The Second Carnatic War (1749–1754)

The backdrop of the Second Carnatic War was the ongoing rivalry between the British and French in India. Despite the conclusion of the First Carnatic War, the tranquility in India was short-lived.

• The death of Nizam-ul-Mulk, the Mughal administrator of the Deccan and semi-independent Nawab of Hyderabad, in 1748, sparked contention over his succession. This power vacuum drew the British and French into the dispute among the contenders.
• The French aimed to bolster their political influence and power in southern India by intervening in local dynastic rivalries, seeking to outmaneuver the English.
• During the Second Carnatic War, which lasted from 1749 to 1754, the British consolidated their control in southern India.

Progression of the Conflict

• The death of Nizam-ul-Mulk and the release of Chanda Sahib by the Marathas in 1748 presented an opportunity for power struggles. Muzaffar Jang, grandson of the Nawab, challenged Nasir Jang, son of the Nizam, for the throne of Hyderabad. Meanwhile, in the Carnatic, Muzaffar Jang, Chanda Sahib, and the French army defeated and killed Anwar ud-din in the Battle of Ambur in 1749.
• As the conflict unfolded, Muzaffar Jang was appointed Nizam of Hyderabad and Subahdar of Deccan, with Dupleix assuming control of Mughal provinces south of the Krishna River. However, Muzaffar Jung's assassination led to the placement of his uncle, Salabat Jung, as the new Nizam.
• Subsequent battles and political maneuvering ultimately established Muhammad Ali as the Nawab of Carnatic. Chanda Sahib was executed, and the French government, discontented with Dupleix's costly policies, recalled him in 1754.

Outcome of the War

• Dupleix was replaced by Charles Robert Godeheu as French Governor-General in India. Godeheu pursued a conciliatory approach toward the English, culminating in the signing of the Treaty of Pondicherry. 
• This treaty, promising non-interference in the disputes of native kings, aimed to ease tensions between the British and French in India.

The Third Carnatic War (1758–1763)

The outbreak of the Seven Years' War in Europe in 1756, triggered by Austria's attempt to reclaim Silesia, reignited hostilities between Britain and France.

Progression of the Conflict

• In 1758, the French army, under the command of Count Thomas Arthur de Lally, captured the English forts of St. David and Vizianagaram. However, the English retaliated by launching attacks that inflicted significant losses on the French navy, led by Admiral D'Ache, at Masulipatnam.
• A turning point occurred on January 22, 1760, with the decisive Battle of Wandiwash (or Vandavasi) in Tamil Nadu. The English army, led by General Eyre Coote, achieved a resounding victory over the French forces commanded by Count de Lally. Marquis de Bussy was captured, and Count de Lally valiantly defended Pondicherry for eight months before surrendering on January 16, 1761.

Outcome of the Conflict

• The Third Carnatic War proved to be pivotal. The Treaty of Paris (1763) concluded the war, restoring Pondicherry and Chandannagar to France but restricting their activities to commercial operations. Despite this restoration of French trading posts in India, French political influence in the region waned post-war.
• Subsequently, like their Portuguese and Dutch counterparts, the French confined themselves to small enclaves and focused primarily on commerce. Meanwhile, the English emerged as the dominant European power in the Indian subcontinent.

Factors Contributing to English Success

• The success of the English in India can be attributed to several key factors. Unlike the French corporation, which operated as a state-owned enterprise, the English corporation functioned as a private enterprise. This distinction fostered a spirit of optimism and self-assurance among the English people. Moreover, the English corporation enjoyed greater autonomy, enabling it to make swift decisions without cumbersome governmental oversight or delays.
• Furthermore, the superiority of the English navy over the French fleet played a crucial role. The English navy effectively disrupted the maritime routes between France's Indian colonies and France itself, hampering French supply lines and communication networks.
• In terms of territorial control, the English held sway over three major cities—Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras—while the French dominion was limited to Pondicherry. This broader territorial control bolstered the English position in India.
• Moreover, the English prioritized their business interests alongside their imperial ambitions, ensuring a solid financial foundation. This contrasted with the French, who often prioritized territorial expansion over economic considerations, resulting in financial constraints for their enterprise.
• Another significant advantage for the English was the quality and depth of their leadership. They boasted a cadre of skilled commanders, including Sir Eyre Coote, Major Stringer Lawrence, and Robert Clive, among others. In contrast, the French had fewer notable commanders, with Dupleix being one of the primary figures.
• In summary, the combination of a flexible and autonomous corporate structure, naval superiority, broader territorial control, a focus on business interests, and strong leadership contributed to the English triumph in India.

Dupleix: A Visionary and Diplomatic Leader

• In 1741, Joseph Francois Dupleix harbored ambitions of establishing a French Empire in India, yet his efforts to garner support from his superiors proved futile.
• The clash between the British and French in India led to a series of skirmishes, with the arrival of Robert Clive in 1744 dealing a blow to Dupleix's aspirations of French colonial expansion in the region.
• Pondicherry fell to the British in 1761, marking a significant setback for French possessions in India, which have since remained marginalized.
• Dupleix's strategic acumen and diplomatic prowess during the first two Carnatic wars are evident. He adeptly utilized the Nawab of Carnatic to prevent English incursions into French territory, ensuring the protection of French colonists in Pondicherry until French forces could muster sufficient strength.
• Following the defeat of the English, Dupleix secured promises for the Nawab's claim to Madras in exchange. Notably, Dupleix was among the first Europeans to intervene in the domestic affairs of Indian monarchs, supporting candidates like Muzzaffar Jang for Hyderabad and Chanda Sahib for Carnatic, who were duly elected in exchange for significant concessions to Dupleix.
• Serving as governor-general of French territories in India from 1742 to 1754, Dupleix ultimately met a tragic end, dying in impoverished circumstances in Paris in 1764. Despite this, his legacy as a visionary leader and skilled diplomat endures.

Post-Independence Relations between India and France

• Following India's independence from British rule in 1947, France's former Indian territories were reintegrated with British India.
• In 1948, France and India jointly organized an election to decide the political future of the territories still under French administration.
• Pondicherry was formally integrated into the Indian Union on November 1, 1954, while Chandernagore was returned to India on May 2, 1950.
• The remaining regions of French India were restored to India in 1962, following the ratification of an agreement by the French Parliament, further solidifying the bilateral relationship between France and India.

Conclusion

The triumph at Wandiwash decisively concluded the European rivalry of the English East India Company in India, positioning them for the potential control of the entire nation. Sepoys from the native population were enlisted on both sides during the Battle of Wandiwash, suggesting that regardless of the victor, the eventual subjugation of India by European invaders seemed inevitable.