Beginning and Spread of the Revolt

The Spark

• The revolt of 1857 began with a spark that ignited the growing disaffection among the sepoys in the Indian Army. The introduction of the Enfield rifle and the rumors surrounding its cartridges played a crucial role in triggering the revolt. Here are the key points about the beginning and spread of the revolt:
• Mixing of Bone Dust in Atta: Reports circulated among the sepoys that bone dust, possibly from animal bones, was being mixed in the atta (flour) provided to them. This news further heightened their mistrust and dissatisfaction with the government.
• The Enfield Rifle and Greased Cartridges: The new Enfield rifle was introduced, and its cartridges had to be bitten off before loading. The greased wrapping paper of the cartridges was rumored to be greased with a mixture of beef and pig fat. For Hindus, the cow was considered sacred, while Muslims considered the pig taboo. The sepoys interpreted this as a deliberate insult to their religious beliefs.
• Religious Concerns and Grave Danger: The sepoys' religious sentiments were deeply offended, and they felt that their religion was in grave danger. The administration did not take any steps to address these concerns, which exacerbated the sepoys' discontent.
• The catalyst for Open Discontent: While the greased cartridges did not introduce a new cause of discontent among the sepoys, they served as the catalyst that brought the simmering discontent to the surface. It provided the sepoys with a tangible grievance around which they could rally and express their frustrations openly.

The issue of the greased cartridges and the religious implications attached to them became a focal point for the sepoys' grievances and provided a trigger for the outbreak of the revolt. It should be noted that while the greased cartridges played a significant role in initiating the revolt, the underlying causes and discontent among the sepoys were much broader and multifaceted.

Starts at Meerut

• The revolt of 1857, also known as the Indian Rebellion or the Sepoy Mutiny, began at Meerut on May 10, 1857. Here are the key points about the initial spread of the revolt:
• Resentment in Cantonments: Prior to the Meerut incident, there were simmering tensions and resentment among sepoys in various cantonments across India. The discontent was fueled by various factors, including religious concerns, grievances related to service conditions, and the introduction of the Enfield rifle.
• Mutiny at Berhampore: The 19th Native Infantry stationed at Berhampore in West Bengal refused to use the Enfield rifle and mutinied in February 1857. As a result, the regiment was disbanded in March 1857.
• Mangal Pande and Barrackpore Incident: Mangal Pande, a young sepoy of the 34th Native Infantry, went further in his defiance and fired at the sergeant major of his unit at Barrackpore. He was captured, and on April 8, 1857, he was executed. The regiment was disbanded in May.
• Defiance of the 7th Awadh Regiment: On May 3, 1857, the 7th Awadh Regiment openly defied their officers, which resulted in the regiment being disbanded.
• Mutiny at Meerut: On April 24, 1857, ninety men of the 3rd Native Cavalry at Meerut refused to accept the greased cartridges. In response, on May 9, eighty-five of them were dismissed, sentenced to 10 years imprisonment, and put in fetters. This sparked a general mutiny among the Indian soldiers stationed at Meerut.
• Revolt and March towards Delhi: On May 10, 1857, the sepoys at Meerut released their imprisoned comrades, killed their officers, and unfurled the banner of revolt. They then set off for Delhi after sunset, marking the beginning of the revolt spreading beyond Meerut.

The events at Meerut were the initial catalyst for the revolt of 1857, and from there, the rebellion rapidly gained momentum, spreading to different regions across northern and central India.

Choice of Bahadur Shah as Symbolic Head

• After the mutiny erupted in Meerut and the sepoys marched towards Delhi, the local infantry in Delhi joined them in their rebellion. They killed their European officers and took control of the city. In Delhi, Lieutenant Willoughby, the officer-in-charge of the magazine, offered some resistance but was eventually overcome. It was in Delhi that the aged and powerless Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last Mughal emperor, was proclaimed the Emperor of India.
• The choice of Bahadur Shah as the symbolic head of the revolt was significant for several reasons. Firstly, it recognized the historical and cultural significance of the Mughal dynasty, which had long been associated with the political unity of India. By raising Bahadur Shah to the leadership position, the sepoys transformed the mutiny into a larger revolutionary movement.
• Secondly, the selection of Bahadur Shah as the symbol of the revolt demonstrated that the rebels were politically motivated rather than solely driven by religious identity. While religion played a role in their grievances, their broader outlook was focused on opposing the British as a common enemy.
• Bahadur Shah, initially hesitant, began to take an active role and wrote letters to various chiefs and rulers across India, urging them to unite in a confederacy against British rule. This call for a unified front against the British further solidified the rebellion and attracted the support of other Indian leaders.
• As the revolt spread, the entire Bengal Army rose in rebellion, and regions such as Awadh, Rohilkhand, the Doab, Bundelkhand, central India, large parts of Bihar, and East Punjab shook off British authority. The revolt of 1857 became a significant challenge to British rule in India, with Bahadur Shah as its symbolic figurehead and the rebellion encompassing a vast geographical area.

Civilians Join

• The revolt of the sepoys was accompanied by a rebellion of the civil population, particularly in the north-western provinces and Awadh. Their accumulated grievances found immediate expression and they rose en masse to give vent to their opposition to British rule. It is the widespread participation in the revolt by the peasantry, the artisans, shopkeepers, day labourers, zamindars, religious mendicants, priests and civil servants which gave it real strength as well as the character of a popular revolt. Here the peasants and petty zamindars gave free expression to their grievances by attacking the money lenders and zamindars who had displaced them from the land. They took advantage of the revolt to destroy the money lenders’ account books and debt records. They also attacked the British-established law courts, revenue offices (tehsils), revenue records and police stations.
• According to one estimate, of the total number of about 1,50,000 men who died fighting the English in Awadh, over 1,00,000 were civilians. Within a month of the capture of Delhi by the rebels, the revolt spread to different parts of the country.

Storm Centres and Leaders of the Revolt

• The revolt of 1857 had various storm centres and leaders who played significant roles in different regions of India.
• Delhi: In Delhi, the nominal leadership belonged to Bahadur Shah, the Mughal emperor, but the real command lay with a court of soldiers headed by General Bakht Khan. The court conducted the affairs of the state in the name of the emperor. Bahadur Shah's weak personality and lack of leadership qualities weakened the revolt's nerve centre.
• Kanpur: Nana Saheb, the adopted son of the last Peshwa, Baji Rao II, emerged as the leader in Kanpur. He expelled the English from Kanpur, proclaimed himself the Peshwa, and acknowledged Bahadur Shah as the Emperor of India. Sir Hugh Wheeler, commanding the station, surrendered to Nana Saheb, who later declared himself the governor. Begum Hazrat Mahal also played a significant role in leading the rebellion in Lucknow.
• Lucknow: Begum Hazrat Mahal took over the reins in Lucknow after the rebellion broke out. Her son, Birjis Qadir, was proclaimed the nawab and a regular administration was established with important offices shared by both Muslims and Hindus. The British resident, Sir Henry Lawrence, and the European inhabitants took shelter in the residency, which was besieged by Indian rebels. Sir Henry was killed during the siege, and the command devolved to Brigadier Inglis, who held out against heavy odds.
• Bareilly: Khan Bahadur, a descendant of the former ruler of Rohilkhand, was placed in command in Bareilly. He organized an army and offered stiff resistance to the British.
• Bihar: The revolt in Bihar was led by Kunwar Singh, the zamindar of Jagdishpur. He joined the sepoys and offered resistance to the British.
• Faizabad: Maulvi Ahmadullah, a native of Madras who had moved to Faizabad, emerged as a leader in the revolt. He fought against the British troops and played a significant role in Awadh.
• Jhansi: Rani Laxmibai, the Rani of Jhansi, assumed leadership and played a prominent role in the revolt. She was joined by Tantia Tope after the loss of Kanpur. They marched towards Gwalior, where they were hailed by Indian soldiers.

These leaders, along with many others, played crucial roles in various regions, demonstrating the widespread nature of the revolt and the diversity of its leadership.

View

• The revolt of 1857 was not limited to the prominent leaders and centres mentioned earlier. It involved the active participation of common masses and local leaders who played significant roles in their respective regions. One such example is Shah Mal, a local villager in Pargana Baraut (Baghpat, Uttar Pradesh). Shah Mal organized the headmen and peasants of 84 villages and encouraged them to rebel against British rule.
• Shah Mal and his followers attacked government buildings, destroyed bridges, and dug up roads as symbols of resistance against British hegemony. He sent supplies to the mutineers in Delhi and effectively disrupted communication between British headquarters and Meerut. Shah Mal established his headquarters at an irrigation department bungalow on the banks of the Yamuna, where he acted as a judge and resolved disputes among the local population.
• Shah Mal's efforts provided a sense of empowerment to the people in the area, making them believe that British rule was coming to an end and their own rule was emerging. However, in July 1857, Shah Mal was killed by an English officer named Dunlap. His body was allegedly mutilated, with his head being displayed as a means to intimidate the public.
• Despite the loss of leaders like Shah Mal, the rebellion continued for more than a year with the active involvement of numerous individuals and communities who fought against the British forces, demonstrating their resilience and determination in the face of heavy odds.

Suppression of the Revolt

• The suppression of the revolt of 1857 was marked by intense and brutal military operations carried out by British forces. After a prolonged and fierce battle, the British captured Delhi on September 20, 1857. John Nicholson, the leader of the siege, was wounded and later died from his injuries. Bahadur Shah, the Mughal emperor, was taken prisoner and later exiled to Rangoon, where he died in 1862. The royal princes were captured and executed on the spot, publicly shot at close range by Lieutenant Hudson.
• With the fall of Delhi, the central focal point of the revolt was eliminated. The British forces systematically targeted and defeated the prominent leaders of the revolt. Kanpur was recaptured by Sir Colin Campbell on December 6, 1857, and Nana Saheb, the leader of the rebellion in Kanpur, escaped to Nepal and disappeared from historical records. Tantia Tope, a close associate of Nana Saheb, was captured and executed in April 1859 after being found asleep in the jungles of central India. The Rani of Jhansi had died on the battlefield in June 1858, and Jhansi was recaptured by Sir Hugh Rose. Other leaders such as Kunwar Singh, Bakht Khan, Khan Bahadur Khan of Bareilly, Rao Sahib (brother of Nana Saheb), and Maulvi Ahmadullah also died during the course of the suppression. The Begum of Awadh was forced to hide in Nepal.
• In addition to military operations, the British employed harsh measures to quell any remaining rebellious activity. In Benaras (now Varanasi), a rebellion was suppressed by Colonel Neill, who executed suspected rebels and even sepoys displaying disorderly behaviour.
• By the end of 1859, British authority over India was fully restored. The British government invested significant resources in terms of manpower, finances, and arms to suppress the revolt. The Indian population was later burdened with repaying the cost of their own suppression. The revolt of 1857 marked a significant turning point in British India, leading to the formal transfer of power from the East India Company to the British Crown and the beginning of direct colonial rule.