Shah Jahan (1627-1658)

Following the demise of Jahangir, a brief power struggle ensued for succession. By 1628, Khurram, known as Shah Jahan upon ascending the throne, successfully eliminated his rivals to claim the leadership.

• Renowned for his military prowess, Shah Jahan's enduring legacy lies in his architectural marvels, which epitomized the zenith of Mughal Architecture during his reign. 
• Despite his military campaigns, particularly in the northwest frontier to reclaim Kandahar and other ancestral lands, control over Kandahar remained elusive. 
• His Balkh campaign aimed at installing a friendly ruler in Balkh and Badakshan, adjacent to Kabul.
• Shah Jahan's Deccan policy yielded greater success, marked by the annexation of Ahmadnagar and treaties signed with Bijapur and Golkonda. 
• Notably, he defeated Shahji Bhonsle, father of Shivaji. 
• Tragically, in 1631, Shah Jahan's beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal passed away, prompting him to commission the construction of the iconic Taj Mahal in Agra as a tribute to her memory.
• Contemporaneous with Louis XIV of France, Shah Jahan's era attracted European visitors like Bernier, Tavernier, Mandelslo, Peter Mundy, and Manucci, who documented their experiences in India. 
• Mumtaz Mahal, originally Arjumand Bano Begum, married Prince Khurram, later known as Shah Jahan. 
• His architectural legacy includes renowned structures like Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas, Shish Mahal, Moti Mosque, Khas Mahal, Musamman Burj, Nagina Mosque, Jama Mosque, Taj Mahal, and Red Fort.
• During his reign, Shah Jahan's son, Dara Shikoh, translated the Upanishads into Persian as Sirr-i-Akbar, and authored Majma-ul-Bahrain, earning the title 'Shah Buland Iqbal.' 
• Shah Jahan's capital was shifted from Agra to Delhi in 1648, and he abolished the Persian court custom of Sijda. 
• The loss of Kandahar dealt a significant strategic blow to the Mughal Empire during his rule. 
• Kalim served as the Poet-Laureate of Shah Jahan's court.

Shah Jahan

Conquests

• Shah Jahan's military prowess was formidable, and Jahangir had relied on him to quell rebellions effectively.
• In 1628, Jujhar Singh, a Bundella Chief, rebelled in Bundelkhand but was swiftly defeated and slain. 
• Subsequently, Khan-i-Jahan Lodi, the Subedar of Deccan, revolted in alliance with the ruler of Ahmednagar, only to meet a similar fate of defeat and demise.
• The Deccan States of Ahmednagar, Bijapur, and Golconda posed recurrent challenges to the stability of the Mughal Empire. 
• Shah Jahan recognized that peace in the Deccan was untenable as long as Ahmednagar remained independent. 
• Thus, in 1629, he dispatched a sizable army against Ahmednagar and personally led campaigns in the Deccan, seeking cooperation from Adil Shah of Bijapur and Shahji Bhonsle, father of Shivaji. 
• The Mughals annexed a significant portion of Ahmednagar, installing a compliant ruler.
• Following this conquest, Mahabat Khan assumed the role of viceroy of Deccan. In 1633, Adil Shah launched an assault on the Daulatabad fort, prompting Mahabat Khan to confront the combined forces of Bijapur and Ahmednagar, including Shahji who had switched sides. 
• Despite the odds, the Mughal forces prevailed, leading to the surrender of Nizam Shah and the demise of the Nizam Shahi dynasty.
• However, Shahji and Adil Shah persisted in their resistance against the Mughals. 
• Recognizing Bijapur as the primary obstacle, Shah Jahan dispatched a formidable army to invade Bijapur, compelling Adil Shah to sign a treaty recognizing Mughal suzerainty and paying a substantial indemnity.
• Similarly, Shah Jahan coerced Golconda into a treaty whereby the Qutub Shahi ruler pledged allegiance to the Mughal Emperor and acknowledged Shah Jahan in the khutba. 
• These diplomatic maneuvers, executed in 1636, demonstrated statesmanship, establishing Mughal suzerainty across the realm.

Religious Policy

• Shah Jahan, a devout Sunni Muslim, devoutly observed his faith, maintaining regular prayers and fasting during Ramadan.
•  Initially, his reign reflected orthodoxy, evidenced by various measures he undertook.
• He prohibited the practice of Hindus owning Muslim slaves, levied a pilgrimage tax on Hindus (which was later rescinded), and halted the observance of Hindu festivals at the royal court. 
• In 1633, he decreed that temples whose construction began during Jahangir's reign but remained incomplete would not be finished. 
• Consequently, 76 temples initiated in Banaras were razed, and during wartime, temples and churches faced destruction. 
• Throughout his rule, Shah Jahan promoted Islam, often encouraging conversion through various means, including offering freedom to war captives who converted and imposing severe penalties on those who disrespected Islam or its prophet.
• However, Shah Jahan's fervor for Islam waned over time, with enforcement of his earlier regulations diminishing. 
• This shift may have been influenced by the liberal perspectives of his favorite son, Dara Shikoh, and his daughter, Jahanara, as well as the necessity to secure the loyalty of Hindu nobility. 
• As his reign progressed, Shah Jahan abandoned persecution of other faiths, ceasing the destruction of Hindu temples and allowing Hindu practices like Jharokha-darshan to continue. 
• Hindu scholars received respect and patronage, with Sanskrit texts translated into Persian under Dara Shikoh's sponsorship. 
• Meritocracy prevailed in state services, with individuals like Raja Jaswant Singh and Rai Singh receiving generous rewards. Artists and performers from diverse religious backgrounds found favor at his court.
• In the latter phase of his rule, Shah Jahan's policies shifted away from religious intolerance, marking a departure from the zeal displayed in the earlier years. 
• Although some bias persisted compared to his predecessors, his reign cannot be solely characterized by religious persecution.

Relation with European Traders

• During Akbar's reign, the Portuguese were granted permission to establish a trading post in Hugli, Bengal. 
• However, in 1641 AD, they defied imperial orders by fortifying the area. 
• Exploiting Indian traders with heavy duties and engaging in the abhorrent practice of slave trade further fueled resentment, exacerbated by attempts at proselytizing Indians into Christianity.
• In response, Shah Jahan launched an attack on the Portuguese, resulting in the seizure of Hugli from them. 
• Meanwhile, the Dutch East India Company, founded in 1602, had established trading centers in Surat, Ahmedabad, Cochin, Patna, and Agra. 
• The English, having established their trading center at Fort Saint George, were also permitted to trade in Hugli during Shah Jahan's reign.

War of Succession

• Shah Jahan fathered four sons: Dara, Shuja, Aurangzeb, and Murad. He favored his eldest son, Dara, to succeed him as emperor.
• However, when Shah Jahan fell ill in 1657, a fierce struggle erupted among his sons for the throne. 
• Shuja, then stationed in Bengal, proclaimed himself king and marched towards Agra. 
• Yet, in February 1658, Shuja was defeated near Banaras by Dara's son, Sulaiman, and Raja Jai Singh.
• Recognizing the challenge posed by Dara, Aurangzeb, renowned for his military prowess and diplomatic acumen, sought an alliance with Murad, who resided in Gujarat, promising to share the empire.
• Together, they led their combined forces to Agra, defeating a large army commanded by Raja Jaswant Singh of Marwar at the Battle of Dharmat in April 1658.
• In the decisive Battle of Samugarh in May 1658, Aurangzeb demonstrated superior military strategy. Dara's forces were decisively defeated, leading to Aurangzeb's virtual imprisonment of Shah Jahan. 
• Aurangzeb then treacherously imprisoned Murad, sending him to Gwalior jail. Shah Jahan spent his remaining eight years confined within his fort. Eventually, Dara and Murad were executed, while Shuja met his demise a few years later.

Evaluation of Shah Jahan’s Reign

• During this era, the Mughal Empire ascended to its pinnacle of greatness, often hailed as the Golden Age or the Age of Magnificence. 
• Across the empire, a period of peace and prosperity prevailed, as rulers dedicated themselves to the advancement of art and architecture, captivating the imagination of Europeans with the splendor of the court. 
• Foreign trade flourished, leading to a surge in state income.
• Yet, beneath the surface glamour of the court and the facade of tranquility, ominous signs of financial strain and the Empire's decline loomed. 
• Enormous sums were drained into the construction of tombs, palaces, mosques, and ill-fated military campaigns in the North-West and Deccan, contributing to the Empire's fiscal woes and waning strength.