Maratha Empire

• The ground for the establishment of an independent Maratha state was prepared by the advance of Mughal armies in the South. After the collapse of the Mughal Empire, the Marathas emerged as a significant force that ruled in a larger part of India

Introduction

•  Within the administrative and military structures of the Deccan Sultanates of Bijapur and Ahmednagar, the Marathas held significant positions.
• However, the establishment of a formidable Maratha state is credited to Shahji Bhonsle and his son Shivaji. Several factors played a role in the ascension of the Marathas during the 16th and 17th centuries.

Shivaji (AD 1627-1680)

•  Born in the Fort of Shivner in AD 1627, Shivaji hailed from the Bhonsle family of the Poona district. The family gained military and political prominence in the Ahmednagar Kingdom toward the end of the 16th century.

• Shivaji was raised in Poona under the watchful eyes of his mother and the competent Brahman, Dadaji Kondadev. Additionally, Shivaji was influenced religiously by Guru Samarth Ramdas.
• In AD 1637, Shivaji's father entrusted the administration of the Pune Jagir to him. Dadaji continued to have de facto control over the administration until AD 1647 when Shivaji assumed full charge. Before that, at the age of 18, he successfully captured numerous hill forts near Poona, including the Fort of Torana in AD 1646. 
• Subsequently, he erected new forts such as Raigarh and Pratapgarh. Following Dadaji Kondadev's death in 1647, Shivaji took control of all his father's Jagirs. Marathas, under Shivaji's leadership, captured forts like Indapura, Purandhar, Baramati, and towns including Kondana and Kalyan.

• The Maratha Kingdom, founded by Shivaji, exerted dominance over Western India for almost a century and a half.

Conquests of Shivaji

• Shivaji initiated his significant conquests in AD 1656 by capturing Javli from Maratha Chief Chandra Rao More. Subsequently, in AD 1657-58, he launched an attack on the Adil Shahi Kingdom of Bijapur.
• After the death of Mohammad Adil Shah in November AD 1656, Adil Shah II took over, and Shivaji, along with the Sultan of Bijapur, had to make peace with Aurangzeb. Shivaji captured Kalyani, Parinder, and Bidar in AD 1657.

• A joint Mughal-Bijapuri campaign against Shivaji began in AD 1660, with Shaista Khan appointed as the Governor of Deccan by Aurangzeb to curb Shivaji's growing power.
• In AD 1663, Shivaji launched an attack on Shaista Khan's military camp, plundering Surat in AD 1664 and later Ahmednagar.
• Aurangzeb dispatched Prince Muazzam and later Mirza Raja Jai Singh of Amber against Shivaji. Jai Singh surrounded Shivaji in the Fort of Purandhar, leading to the signing of the Treaty of Purandhar in AD 1665. As per the treaty, Shivaji retained possession of 12 forts out of 35 and agreed to serve and remain loyal to the Mughal throne.
• Shivaji was granted the Balaghat territory of Bijapur and committed to visiting Aurangzeb's court in Agra. However, after being humiliated, Shivaji executed a miraculous escape in AD 1666.
• Renewing hostilities with the Mughals, Shivaji plundered Surat again in AD 1670 and gradually reclaimed many of his forts.
• Facing Mughal forces led by Diler Khan and Bahadur Khan, Shivaji emerged victorious in the Battle of Salher in AD 1672.

Deccan Campaigns

• Shivaji entered into a secret treaty with the Sultan of Golconda, promising certain territories.
• In AD 1674, Maratha General Venkoji, Shivaji's half-brother, ended Nayak rule in Tanjore by invading with Bijapur forces, establishing Maratha rule in the Tanjore region.

He passed away at Raigarh in AD 1680, after a reign lasting only 6 years.

Coronation of Shivaji

• Shivaji asserted his independence as the ruler of the Maratha Kingdom and was ceremoniously crowned Chhatrapati in AD 1674 at Raigarh. Establishing Raigarh as his capital, Shivaji's coronation symbolized the people's ascent to challenge the dominance of the Mughals.

Successors of Shivaji

• Following Shivaji's demise, his eldest son Sambhaji took over. Aurangzeb executed Sambhaji, leading to Rajaram, another son of Shivaji, assuming the role of Chhatrapati. After Rajaram's passing, his wife Tarabai assumed governance on behalf of their minor son Shivaji II.

Sambhaji (AD 1680-1689)

• The succession war between Sambhaji, the elder son, and Rajaram, the younger son of Shivaji, concluded with the victory of the former and the imprisonment of the latter. Sambhaji ascended the throne on July 20, 1680.
•  Distrust in Maratha leaders prompted him to place confidence in a Brahmin named Kanhoji, whom he endowed with supreme control of the administration and the title of Kavi Kalash in AD 1680-81. Sambhaji extended protection and support to Akbar II, the rebellious son of Aurangzeb.

Rajaram (AD 1689-1700)

• Rajaram, the younger brother of Sambhaji, ruled on behalf of Sahu. Crowned at Raigarh in February AD 1689, he soon left Raigarh, anticipating a Mughal attack, and wandered from place to place, ultimately reaching Jinji or Gingee in Karnataka.
• The Maratha Council of Ministers and other officials also rallied around him at Jinji, which, until AD 1698, served as the focal point of Maratha resistance against the Mughals.
• With the support of his capable Generals, Santaji Ghorpade and Dharaji Jadav, Rajaram initiated an offensive against Mughal territories in Deccan.
• Rajaram implemented administrative changes, introducing the new position of Pratinidhi, thereby expanding the Ashtapradhan to a total of nine ministers.
• Although Sahu received the title of Raja and a Mansab, he remained essentially under Mughal captivity until the death of Aurangzeb in 1707.
• Jinji eventually fell to the Mughals in AD 1698, prompting Rajaram to escape to Visalgarh in Maharashtra. He passed away in March AD 1700 at Satara, which had become the capital after Jinji's fall.

Shivaji II and Tarabai (AD 1700-1707)

• Following Rajaram's demise, Tarabai, the widow of Rajaram, installed her other son, Shivaji II, on the throne and assumed the role of regent. Tarabai's vigor and competence elevated her to the position of de facto ruler, steering the Maratha state through a severe crisis. She adeptly managed both civil and military affairs, showcasing equal success in both domains.
• During this period, the Marathas launched attacks on Berar (AD 1703), Baroda (AD 1706), and Aurangabad. In the midst of the resulting confusion and disorder, Aurangzeb passed away on 3rd March 1707, while Tarabai still held sway.
• The Mughals, however, successfully sowed discord among the Marathas, creating two opposing factions: one led by Tarabai and the other by Sambhaji's son, Sahu. Eventually, Sahu managed to depose Tarabai with the assistance of Chitpavan Brahman Balaji Vishwanath.

Sahu (AD 1707-1749)

• Emancipated by the Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah, Sahu's release marked the commencement of a civil war (AD 1707-14) between him and Tarabai. Sahu emerged victorious at the Battle of Khed on 12th October 1707, leading to his occupation of Satara.
• In 1719, Sahu collaborated with the Sayyid brothers to facilitate the execution of Farrukhsiyar and secure the release of his mother.
• Subsequently, the Maratha Kingdom underwent a division into two sub-states. Sahu assumed leadership at Satara, while Shivaji II, supported by Tarabai, became the head at Kolhapur upon ascending the throne.
• The longstanding feud between these two rivals found resolution through the Treaty of Warna in 1731. According to the treaty, Sambhaji II would govern the Southern division of the Maratha Kingdom with Kolhapur as its capital, while the Northern part, centered at Satara, would remain under Sahu's control.
• Sahu's reign witnessed the emergence of Peshwaship and the transformation of the Maratha Kingdom into an empire based on the principle of confederacy.

Rajaram II (AD 1749-1777)

• Rajaram II (AD 1749-1777), also known as Ramaraja, served as the sixth monarch of the Maratha Empire. Adopted by Chhatrapati Sahu, he was presented to Sahu by Tarabai as her own grandson, a move aimed at seizing power after Sahu's demise. 
• During Rajaram II's rule, executive power rested primarily with the Peshwa and other chiefs, relegating him to a figurehead role.

Administration Under Shivaji

• Shivaji laid the foundation of a sound system of administration.
• Shivaji's system of administration was largely borrowed from the administrative practices of the Deccan states.
• Most of the administrative reforms of Shivaji were based on Malik Ambar reforms in Ahmednagar.

Central Administration

• Shivaji appointed Hindus to high posts. Marathi was made the state language instead of Persian. He ordered Pandit Hanumant to prepare a dictionary of statecraft for official use, titled Raja Vyakaran Kosh. 
• The administration under Maratha is a centralized autocratic monarchy.
• The king was the supreme head of the state. He was assisted by a group of 8 ministers known as the Ashtapradhan.
• The king's chief objective was the happiness and prosperity of his subjects.

The Ashtapradhan

• With the exception of the Nyayadhish (Chief Justice) and Pundit Rao, all ministers typically held both military commands and civil responsibilities. Shivaji ensured that high offices were not passed down through hereditary lines.
• Each department of the Ashtapradhan, consisting of Diwan, Majumdar, Fadanwis, Sabanwis, Karkhani, Chitnish, Zamdar, and Patnish, had eight officers to provide assistance. Shivaji maintained a policy against hereditary succession in these high-ranking roles.
• Shivaji organized the territories directly under his rule (Swaraj) into three provinces, each governed by a Viceroy. These provinces were further subdivided into Prants, which were then segmented into Parganas and Tarafs. At the smallest level, each village, known as Mauza, had its own Headman or Patil.
• In contrast to the Zamindari system, Shivaji discouraged its adoption and instead provided cash salaries to fortify the administration.
• Shivaji also eliminated the Jagirdari system, opting instead for land grants dedicated to temples and schools.

Revenue Administration

• Shivaji implemented reforms in the roles of hereditary revenue officials, known as Deshmukhs, Deshpandes, Patils, and Kulkarnis. He exercised strict oversight over the Mirasdars, individuals with hereditary land rights. Although these officials were not completely eliminated, Shivaji significantly curtailed their authority through vigilant supervision and the rigorous collection of revenue.
• The appointment of revenue officials, Subadars, or Karkuns, responsible for revenue administration in Prants, played a crucial role in establishing a robust revenue system.

• Revenue assessment involved a thorough survey and classification of lands based on their quality and yield. The state's share was fixed at two-fifths of the gross produce, requiring cultivators to pay 40% of their produce as land revenue. Cultivators were given the option to pay in either cash or kind. Annaji Datto completed a new revenue assessment in AD 1679.

Chauth and Sardeshmukhi

• Marathas imposed two significant taxes, Chauth and Sardeshmukhi, primarily on regions outside the Maratha Kingdom (Swarajya), within an undefined belt legally part of the Mughal Empire or the Deccan states.
• Chauth amounted to one-fourth of the standard revenue assessment of a place, paid to the Marathas as a safeguard, essentially protection money, to prevent Shivaji's forces from plundering or raiding the territory.
• Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10% imposed on areas outside Shivaji's kingdom, as he claimed to be the hereditary Sardeshmukh (Chief Headman) of the entire Maratha country.

Judicial Administration

• The Marathas lacked the development of a centralized and organized judicial department.

• Hazir Majalis served as the highest court for both civil and criminal cases. The roles of Sabbanaik (Judge President) and Mahprashnika (Chief Interrogator) gradually diminished under the Peshwas, whose responsibility was to examine and cross-examine the prosecutor.
• Police officers were designated as Kotwal in urban areas and Faujdar in rural areas.
• A Kamavisdar, authorized by the Peshwa, maintained a small contingent of soldiers responsible for policing the administrative area, where tribute or taxes had to be collected.

Military Administration

• Shivaji established a disciplined and effective army. Ordinary soldiers received cash payments, while prominent Chiefs and Military Commanders were remunerated through the allocation of Jagirs (Saranjam or Mokasa).
• Pindaris were permitted to accompany the army and were authorized to collect Pal-patti, constituting 25% of the war booty.

Army Officers/Soldier

Maratha Power Under the Peshwas

• The Marathas attempted to establish a naval force with the assistance of the Siddis of Janzibar. However, due to the strong presence of the Portuguese, they were unsuccessful in revitalizing their naval base.
• Upon his release by the Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah I in AD 1707, Sahu granted Balaji Vishwanath the title of Sena-Karte (maker of the army) and later elevated him to the position of Peshwa in AD 1713.
• With Balaji's appointment as the Peshwa, the role became hereditary. Balaji and his successors became the de facto rulers of the Maratha Kingdom. In total, there were 7 Peshwas, with Baji Rao I being the most capable and Baji Rao II considered the weakest and most incompetent.

Balaji Vishwanath (AD 1713-1720)

• Starting his career as a modest revenue official appointed by Sahu in AD 1708, Balaji Vishwanath became the Peshwa of the Maratha Empire in AD 1713. He played a crucial role in the civil war, contributing to the final victory of Sahu by persuading almost all Maratha Sardars to support him.

Baji Rao I (AD 1720-1740)

• Baji Rao I, the eldest son of Balaji Vishwanath, succeeded him as Peshwa at the young age of 20. He was considered the greatest exponent of Guerrilla tactics after Shivaji. The Maratha power reached its zenith under his reign.
• His period saw the beginning of the system of confederacy and the rise of Maratha chiefs. Under the system, each prominent Maratha chief was assigned a territory as his sphere of Influence, which he was supposed to conquer on his own and which he could administer autonomously.
• As a result, several prominent Maratha families established themselves in various parts of India, including (i) the Gaekwad at Baroda, (ii) the Bhonsle at Nagpur, (iii) the Holkars at Indore, (iv) the Scindias at Gwalior, and (v) the Peshwas at Poona.
• Following the defeat and expulsion of the Siddhis of Janjira from the mainland in AD 1722, the Marathas, led by their leader, also conquered Bassein and Salsette from the Portuguese in AD 1733. Additionally, they defeated the Nizam-ul-Mulk near Bhopal and entered into the Treaty of Durai Sarai in AD 1737, acquiring Malwa and Bundelkhand from the latter.
• Leading numerous successful expeditions into North India, the Marathas aimed to weaken the Mughal Empire and establish themselves as the supreme power in India.

Balaji Baji Rao (AD 1740-1761)

• Balaji Baji Rao (AD 1740-1761), popularly known as Nana Saheb, took charge at the age of 20 after the death of his father. Following the death of Sahu in 1749, Nana Saheb assumed control over all state affairs.
• An agreement was brokered between the Mughal Emperor Ahmed Shah and the Peshwa in AD 1752, stipulating that the Peshwa would protect the Mughal Empire from internal and external enemies in exchange for the Chauth of the North-West provinces and the total revenues of Agra and Ajmer provinces. This pact brought the Marathas into direct conflict with Ahmed Shah Abdali of Afghanistan.

The Third Battle of Panipat

• The Third Battle of Panipat took place in 1761, where the Marathas, led by Sadashivrao Bhau, faced the Durranis of Afghanistan under Ahmed Shah Abdali. This battle effectively halted the Maratha attempt to succeed the Mughals as rulers of India and marked the virtual end of the Mughal Empire. 
• The battle was influenced by the weakened state of the Mughal Emperors and the division of the nobility into contending groups, coupled with the Marathas' ambition to gain influence in the North and their promise of support to the Mughal Emperor.

Peshwa Madhav Rao I (AD 1761-1772)

• Following Balaji Baji Rao, his younger son Madhav Rao I assumed the role of Peshwa. Raghunath Rao, the eldest surviving member of the Peshwa family, became the regent to the young Peshwa and the de facto ruler of the state.
• After Madhav Rao's demise, the Peshwa's authority waned.

Administration Under the Peshwas

• The Peshwa's Secretariat, known as Huzur Daftar, was situated in Poona. Feudal lords now independently governed their Jagirs.

Pattakila

• In early medieval India, the term Pattakila referred to the village headman, known as Patil in modern times. Larger administrative units included Taraf, Pargana, Sarkar, and Suba.
• The Mamlatdar held the highest position, with the Kamvisdar reporting to him.
• Appointments of Deshmukh, Despande, and Darakhdars aimed to curb corruption.
• The Peshwas' Land Revenue Policy prioritized the interests of peasants, categorizing agricultural land based on productivity.
• Mirasdars had full rights over the land, while Upari engaged in agricultural work with the Peshwa's permission.
• The Peshwas attempted to organize their army along European lines, termed the Kampus system.

Mahattara

•  The term Mahattara, found in medieval inscriptions, referred to village officials under central administration.
•  The village, headed by Patils, was the smallest administrative unit.
•  Kulkarnis assisted Patils in maintaining village administration documents.
•  Potdars were appointed to inspect currency matters.

The Balute system 

• The Balute system of exchange prevailed in villages, where farmers made payments in kind, typically a fixed value of agricultural produce, in exchange for services provided, annually after the harvest.

Prelims Facts

• When was Shivaji born and when did he assume the title of 'Chhatrapati'?

- 1630, 1674, [UPPSC (Pre) 2016]

•  Who was the commander who was sent by the Sultan of Bijapur for repression of Shivaji in 1659 ?

- Afzal Khan [UPPSC (Pre) 1999]

• Which 17th century ruler used a sword called as 'Bhawani'?

- Shivaji IJPSC (Pre) 2010]

• Name the Maratha leader, who put forward the ideal of finding the Hindu empire before the Marathas.

- Shivaji [WBCS (Pre) 2014]

• In which city was Shivaji interned when he escaped from the custody of the Mughals?

- Agra [MPPSC (Pre) 2005]

• In which battle did Shivaji defeated the Mughals?

- Salher [UPPSC (Pre) 2005]

• Which minister in the eight member council (Ashta Pradhan) of Shivaji looked after the foreign affairs?

- Sumant [MPPSC (Pre) 2005, 2014)

• At the time of Shivaji, the post of 'Sarnobat' was related with .........

- Military Administration [UPPSC (Pre) 2014]

•  The Maratha claim or revenue for protection is known by what name?

- Chauth [UPPSC (Pre) 2018]

• The 'Modi Script' was employed in the documents of the .......

- Marathas [Manipur PSC (Pre) 2014)

•  The tax released by the Marathas equal to one tenth of the land revenue is called

- Sardeshmukhi [MPSC (Pre) 2017)

• Which Maratha women led struggle against the Mughal empire from 1700 AD onwards?

- Tarabai [UPPSC (Pre) 2008

• At the time of Aurangzeb's death, the Maratha leadership was in the hands of .....

- Tarabai [UPPSC (Pre) 2012]

• Who streamlined the Maratha Administration after Sambhaji ?

- Balaji Vishwanath [UPPSC (Pre) 2000, IAS (Pre) 2000]

•  The Maratha king become a non-entity and the Peshwa become the virtual ruler from the time of .....

- Balaji Rao [UPPSC (Pre) 2007, 2011]

•  A historian, witnessed the 'third Battle of Panipat' who was he?

- Kashiraj Pandit ICGPSC (Pre) 2003]

•  In the Third Battle of Panipat, Marathas were defeated by whom?

- Afghans [UKPSC (Pre) 2011 , Odisha PSC (Pre) 2011, MPPSC (Pre) 2013]

•  The first Maratha War took place during the tenure of.

- Warren Hastings [WBCS (Pre) 2015]

•  In which year did the Peshwa reign ended ?

- 1818 [UPPSC (Pre) 2015]

Self Check

1. Which is/are the correct reason (s) of the Maratha's rise?

UPPSC (Pre) 1992

(a) Religious consciousness

(b) Geographical security

(c) Political awakening and high quality of leadership

(d) All of the above

2. Which among the following is common to the Treaty of Yandabo (1826), the Treaty of Salbai

(1872) and the Treaty of Gandamak (1879)?

(a) With these treaties various Indian powers formed alliances to defeat the British.

(b) These treaties enabled the British to control the Souch Asian powers.

(c) These treaties expedited the spread of Indian culture abroad.

(d) These treaties give an essential boast to enhance trade in South Asia.

3. Chronologically arrange the following treaties/ conventions signed between the Marathas and the British (starting with the earliest).

1. Treaty of Salbai
2. Treaty of Purandar
3. Convention of Wadgaon
4. Treaty of Surat

Select the correct answer by using the codes given below. 

(a) 4, 2, 3, 1

(b) 4, 3, 2, 1

(c) 1, 3, 2, 4

(d) 1, 2, 3, 4

4. The immediate objective of the Treaty of Purandhar was to

(a) remove the humiliation of defeat and keep Shivaji in good humour.

(b) throw a bone of contention between Shivaji and the ruler of Bijapur.

(c) place Shivaji on a treacherous course.

(d) make him a tool in the hands of the Mughals.

5. Assertion (A) In matters of state, Shivaji was adviced by a Council of Ministers.

Reason (R) Each Minister held independent charge of his department.

UPPSC (Pre) 1997

Codes

(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.

(c) A is true, but R is false.

(d) A is false, but R is true.

6. Which of the following statements is incorrect?

MPSC (Pre) 2017

1. Chauth - Tax realised by the Marathas from the areas outside their domain equal to one-fourth of the revenue paid to the Mughal Empire.
2. Sardeshmukhi - Tax realised by the Marathas equal to one-tenth of the land revenue.
3. Misl - Political unit among the Rajputs, each loyal to its own particular leader.

Codes

(a) Only 1

(b) 2 and 3

(c) Only 3

(d) None of these

7. Consider the following statements about Shivaji s military acumen.

1. He was a master in Guerilla tactics and swifts cavalry warfare.
2. He had build a series of fortified strongholds on the table mountains of the Western Deccan.

Which of the following statements) given above is/ are correct?

(a) Only 1

(b) Only 2

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

8. Which of the following statements about Shivaji's administration is/are correct?

(a) Pundit Rao or the royal chaplain was the Ashtapradhan who did not hold a military command besides his civil duties.

(b) Sachiv, the Ashtapradhan was also known as Sarunavis or Chitnis.

(c) Mantri, the Ashtapradhan was incharge of intelligence or espionage.

(d) All of the above

9. Which of the following was not one of Shivaji's daring exploits which made him a legendary figure and struck terror in the hearts of his adversaries?

(a) His murder of Afzal Khan with Baghnakh or steel claws (1659).

(b) His attack on Shayista Khan, the Mughal Governor, in the latter's harem (1663).

(c) His military movement against of Raja Jai Singh at Purandhar (1665).

(d) His escape from Mughal custody at Agra in the baskets alongwith his son.

10. Consider the following statements.

1. Shivaji biography by Sabhasad is known as Bakhar.
2. Watandars were the local elements in Maratha Kingdom.
3. The lowest unit of the country was termed as 'Prants' in the Maratha Kingdom.

Which of the statements) given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2

(b) 1 and 3

(c) Only 3

(d) All of the above

11. Consider the reign of following Peshwas and arrange them in chronological order UPSC 2023

1. Balaji Viswanath
2. Bajirao I
3. Narayan Rao
4. Madhav Rao I

Select the correct answer by using the codes

1. a) 1,2,4,3
2. b) 2,1,4,3
3. c) 1,2,3,4
4. d) 1,3,2,4

12 . Arrange the following in the correct chronological order.

1. Chhatrapati Sahuji
2. Rajaram
3. Sambhaji
4. Shivaji II

Select the correct answer from the codes given below. 

(a) 3, 2, 1, 4

(b) 3, 2, 4, 1

(c) 2, 3, 1, 4

(d) 1, 2, 3, 4

13. What was the immediate reason for Ahmed Shah Abdali to invade India and fight the Third Battle of Panipat?

IAS (Pre) 2010

(a) He wanted to avenge the expulsion by the Marathas of his Viceroy Timur Shah from Lahore.

(b) The frustrated Governor of Jalandhar Adina Beg

Khan invited him to invade Punjab.

(c) He wanted to punish the Mughal administration for non-payment of the revenues of the Chahar Mahal (Gujarat, Aurangabad, Sialkot and Pasrur).

(d) He wanted to annex all the fertile plains of Punjab up to the borders of Delhi to his kingdom.

14. The Maratha power suffered from certain basic weaknesses which led to its downfall. Which of the following was not one among them?

MPSC (Pre) 2017

(a) The nature of their political system the Marathas alienated the sympathies of other people.

(b) Their raids into the territories of other rulers made new enemies.

(c) The levies charged by them added to the oppression of the common people, particularly peasants and traders.

(d) All of the above

Know Right Answer

1 (d)

2 (b)

3 (a)

4 (b)

5 (c)

6 (c)

7 (c)

8 (d)

9 (c)

10 (a)

11 (c)

12 (b)

13 (a)

14 (d)