Anglo-Maratha Struggle for Supremacy

Rise of the Marathas

• The rise of the Marathas in India occurred as the Mughal Empire declined. The Marathas gradually gained control over a significant portion of the country and even collected tributes from regions outside their direct influence. By the mid-18th century, they had aspirations of becoming rulers of the north Indian empire and played a significant role in the Mughal court as kingmakers. Despite suffering a defeat at the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 against Ahmad Shah Abdali, the Marathas regrouped, regained their strength, and within a decade achieved a position of power in India.
• Under the leadership of Bajirao I, considered one of the greatest Peshwas (prime ministers) of the Maratha Empire, a confederacy of prominent Maratha chiefs was formed to manage and expand Maratha power. This confederacy aimed to appease the Kshatriya section of the Marathas, led by the Senapati Dabodi, by assigning each prominent family a sphere of influence that they were expected to conquer and rule on behalf of the Maratha king, Shahu.
• Several prominent Maratha families emerged within this confederacy, including the Gaekwad of Baroda, the Bhonsle of Nagpur, the Holkars of Indore, the Sindhias of Gwalior, and the Peshwa of Poona. The confederacy operated cordially under the leadership of Bajirao I to Madhavrao I. However, the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 and the subsequent death of the young Peshwa, Madhavrao I, in 1772 weakened the Peshwas' control over the confederacy. As a result, the chiefs of the confederacy often quarreled among themselves, although they occasionally united against the British during the period from 1775 to 1782.

Entry of the English into Maratha Politics

• During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the Marathas and the English engaged in three major conflicts for political supremacy, ultimately resulting in the English emerging victorious. These conflicts arose due to the English's ambitious goals and the internal divisions within the Maratha Empire, which encouraged the English to pursue their ambitions.
• The English in Bombay had a desire to establish a government similar to the one established by Robert Clive in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. The Marathas provided an opportunity for the English when succession disputes within the Maratha leadership led to divisions and conflicts among them.
• The English saw this as a chance to intervene in Maratha politics and further their own interests. They aimed to exploit the divisions within the Maratha Empire and establish their control over territories and resources. The English hoped to establish a puppet government or manipulate the Maratha leadership to serve their own political and economic interests.
• These conflicts between the Marathas and the English were characterized by a series of battles, alliances, and diplomatic maneuvering. The English took advantage of the internal conflicts within the Maratha Empire, forming alliances with certain factions and exploiting divisions to weaken the Marathas' position.
• Ultimately, through a combination of military victories, diplomatic maneuvering, and exploiting internal divisions, the English emerged as the dominant power in the region. The conflicts marked a significant turning point in the political landscape of India, with the English consolidating their control and influence over vast territories.

First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82)

Background

• During the First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-1782), the conflict between the Marathas and the English was primarily sparked by the power struggle within the Maratha Empire following the death of Peshwa Madhavrao in 1772.
• After Madhavrao's death, his brother Narayanrao became the fifth Peshwa. However, Narayanrao's uncle, Raghunathrao, orchestrated his nephew's assassination and declared himself the Peshwa, despite not being the rightful heir. Narayanrao's widow, Gangabai, gave birth to a son named Sawai Madhavrao, who was the legitimate heir to the Peshwa title. A group of twelve Maratha chiefs, led by Nana Phadnavis, supported the infant Madhavrao and sought to rule on his behalf as regents.
• Amidst this power struggle, Raghunathrao sought assistance from the English at Bombay and signed the Treaty of Surat in 1775. Under this treaty, Raghunathrao ceded the territories of Salsette and Bassein to the English and received military support in return. However, the Calcutta Council, the governing body of the English in Calcutta, disapproved of the Treaty of Surat and sent Colonel Upton to Pune to annul it and negotiate a new treaty, known as the Treaty of Purandar (1776). The Treaty of Purandar promised Raghunathrao a pension and revoked his claim to the Peshwa title. However, the Bombay government rejected this and continued to support Raghunathrao, offering him refuge.
• In 1777, Nana Phadnavis, who had sided with Raghunathrao and the English, violated the treaty by granting the French a port on the west coast. In response, the English sent a military force towards Pune to confront the Marathas.
• The First Anglo-Maratha War was characterized by shifting alliances and military engagements. The conflict saw both sides vying for control over key territories and attempting to assert their influence within the Maratha Empire. However, the war eventually concluded with the Treaty of Salbai in 1782, which restored the status quo ante Bellum and resulted in territorial exchanges and mutual recognition of pre-war possessions.
• Overall, the First Anglo-Maratha War was driven by the internal power struggle within the Maratha Empire, with the English seizing the opportunity to intervene and secure their own interests in the region.

Course of War

• The Battle of Wadgaon, which took place in January 1779, was a significant event during the First Anglo-Maratha War. The Marathas, led by Mahadji Sindhia, employed strategic tactics to trap and defeat the English forces near the village of Wadgaon, Maharashtra.
• During the battle, the Maratha army, despite being outnumbered, utilized their knowledge of the local terrain to their advantage. They lured the English forces into the mountainous ghats near Talegaon and launched a surprise attack, isolating them and cutting off their supply lines. The Marathas also implemented a scorched earth policy, causing further difficulties for the English by destroying farmland and poisoning wells.
• The English, under the command of Colonel Egerton, attempted to retreat to Talegaon but were pursued and attacked by the Marathas. Eventually, they were forced to seek refuge in the village of Wadgaon, where they found themselves surrounded on all sides and deprived of essential supplies.
• Faced with a dire situation, the English surrendered by mid-January 1779 and signed the Treaty of Wadgaon. As a result of this treaty, the British Bombay government was compelled to relinquish all territories that they had acquired since the Treaty of Surat in 1775.
• The Battle of Wadgaon was a significant setback for the English in their quest for dominance over the Marathas. The Marathas demonstrated their military prowess and effectively defended their territories, forcing the English to retreat and accept unfavorable terms in the subsequent treaty.
• Treaty of Salbai (1782):
• The Treaty of Salbai, signed in May 1782, marked the end of the first phase of the struggle between the English and the Marathas during the First Anglo-Maratha War. The treaty was the result of negotiations between the Peshwa and the English, with Warren Hastings, the Governor-General of Bengal, playing a significant role.

The main provisions of the Treaty of Salbai were as follows:

• Salsette, a territory acquired by the English, would remain under their possession.
• All territories conquered by the English since the Treaty of Purandar (1776), including Bassein, would be restored to the Marathas.
• Fateh Singh Gaekwad would retain his territory in Gujarat and continue to serve the Peshwa as before.
• The English would cease their support for Raghunathrao, and the Peshwa would provide him with a maintenance allowance.
• Haidar Ali, the ruler of Mysore, was required to return all territory taken from the English and the Nawab of Arcot.
• The English would maintain their trading privileges as before.
• The Peshwa would not provide support to any other European nation.
• Both the Peshwa and the English would ensure that their respective allies remained at peace with each other.
• Mahadji Sindhia, a prominent Maratha leader, would act as a mutual guarantor to ensure the proper observance of the treaty's terms.
• The Treaty of Salbai aimed to establish a period of peace between the English and the Marathas for twenty years. It addressed territorial disputes, alliances, trade privileges, and the position of various key individuals within the Maratha power structure. However, tensions and conflicts between the English and the Marathas would continue in subsequent phases of the Anglo-Maratha Wars.

Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1805)

Background

• The Second Anglo-Maratha War took place from 1803 to 1805. Similar to the first war, the conflict arose due to the internal divisions among the Marathas and the British desire to intervene in Maratha affairs. Here is a breakdown of the key events during the war:
• Succession and Political Instability: After the suicide of Peshwa Madhavrao Narayan in 1795, Bajirao II, the son of Raghunathrao, became the new Peshwa. However, his rule was marred by ineffectiveness and he was heavily influenced by his ministers. Nana Phadnavis, a rival of Bajirao II, held significant power as the chief minister.
• Opportunity for British Intervention: The internal conflicts and power struggles within the Maratha Empire provided an opportunity for the British to interfere in Maratha affairs. The death of Nana Phadnavis in 1800 further weakened the Marathas and strengthened the British position.
• British Military Campaign: The British, under the leadership of Lord Wellesley, launched a military campaign to expand their influence in India. They attacked and captured several Maratha territories, including Bassein, Broach, and Ahmadnagar. The British also defeated Marathas armies in battles such as Assaye and Argaon.
• Treaty of Bassein: In December 1802, Peshwa Bajirao II signed the Treaty of Bassein with the British. The treaty made the Peshwa a subsidiary ally of the British East India Company, meaning he had to accept their protection and abide by their advice in matters of external affairs. This treaty further escalated tensions between the Marathas and other regional powers who opposed British influence.
• Maratha Resistance: The Treaty of Bassein sparked widespread opposition to the British among the Maratha chiefs, including Holkars and Bhonsles. They rallied together under the leadership of Yashwantrao Holkar and Daulat Rao Sindhia to challenge British dominance.
• Battle of Poona: The Maratha chiefs launched a joint attack on the British residency in Pune, seeking to overthrow the Peshwa and remove British influence. However, the British successfully defended their position and inflicted heavy losses on the Marathas.
• Conclusion and Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon: The war came to an end with the Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon in December 1805. The treaty restored some territories to the Marathas but also recognized British control over significant parts of India. The Marathas were weakened, and the British expanded their influence and dominance in the region.
• The Second Anglo-Maratha War further diminished the power and influence of the Maratha Empire, while strengthening the British position in India. It marked another phase of British expansion and control in the Indian subcontinent.

Course of War

• The course of the war unfolded as follows: On April 1, 1801, the Peshwa (ruler) brutally killed Vithuji, the brother of Jaswantrao Holkar. Outraged by this act, Jaswantrao assembled his forces to confront the combined armies of Sindhia and Bajirao II. The unrest continued, and on October 25, 1802, Jaswantrao decisively defeated the armies of the Peshwa and Sindhia near Poona, specifically at Hadapsar, and placed Vinayakrao, the son of Amritrao, on the Peshwa's throne. In fear, Bajirao II fled to Bassein and signed a treaty with the English on December 31, 1802.
• Known as the Treaty of Bassein, the agreement stipulated several terms. First, the Peshwa agreed to receive a native infantry of at least 6,000 troops from the English, along with field artillery and European artillerymen stationed permanently in his territories. Second, he agreed to cede territories yielding an income of Rs 26 lakh to the English, surrender the city of Surat, renounce all claims for Chauth on Nizam's dominions, accept the English's arbitration in disputes with the Nizam or the Gaekwad, refrain from employing Europeans from nations at war with the English, and subject his relations with other states to English control.
• After accepting the subsidiary alliance, the Peshwa's allies, Sindhia and Bhonsle, attempted to preserve Maratha's independence. However, the well-prepared English army under Arthur Wellesley defeated their combined forces, compelling them to sign separate subsidiary treaties with the English. In 1804, Jashwantrao Holkar tried to form a coalition of Indian rulers against the English, but his efforts proved unsuccessful. The Marathas were defeated, forced into vassalage under the British, and became isolated from one another through the defeats of Bhonsle, Sindhia, and Holkar.
• The Treaty of Bassein, although signed by a Peshwa with limited political authority, brought immense gains for the English. The provision of permanently stationing English troops in Maratha territory was strategically advantageous. With troops already stationed in Mysore, Hyderabad, and Lucknow, adding Poona to the list allowed for a more evenly spread English force that could be promptly deployed when necessary. While the Treaty of Bassein did not hand over India to the English easily, it marked a significant step in that direction, positioning the English to expand their sphere of influence. Therefore, the statement that the treaty "gave the English the key to India" may be seen as somewhat exaggerated but understandable given the circumstances.

Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-19)

Background

• The Third Anglo-Maratha War took place from 1817 to 1819 with Lord Hastings, who aimed to establish British paramountcy, leading the British forces. This war occurred in the backdrop of the East India Company's need for new markets after the end of its monopoly on trade in China (except for tea) according to the Charter Act of 1813. The Pindaris, a group comprising various castes and classes, served as mercenaries in Maratha armies. When the Marathas weakened, the Pindaris were left without regular employment, leading them to engage in plundering neighbouring territories, including those under the Company's control. The English accused the Marathas of harbouring the Pindaris.
• Pindari leaders such as Amir Khan and Karim Khan surrendered, while Chitu Khan fled into the jungles. The Treaty of Bassein, which was seen by other Maratha leaders as a surrender of independence, created resentment and discontent. Lord Hastings' actions against the Pindaris were viewed as a violation of Maratha sovereignty and served to reunite the Maratha Confederacy. In 1817, Bajirao II, repentant and seeking to challenge the English, rallied the Maratha chiefs together in a final attempt during the Third Anglo-Maratha War.

Course of War

• During the course of the war, the Peshwa initiated an attack on the British Residency in Poona, while Appa Sahib of Nagpur targeted the residency in Nagpur. Meanwhile, Holkar prepared for war. However, the Marathas had already lost the crucial elements necessary for building and sustaining power. The political and administrative conditions in the Maratha states were chaotic and ineffective. After the death of Jaswant Rao Holkar, Tulsi Bai, Holkar's favored mistress, took control in Poona. Despite her intelligence, she struggled to govern the state properly due to the influence of untrustworthy individuals like Balram Seth and Amir Khan. The Bhonsle of Nagpur and the Sindhia of Gwalior had also weakened. The British retaliated vigorously, preventing the Peshwa from reestablishing his authority over the Maratha confederacy.
• As a result, the Peshwa was defeated at Khirki, the Bhonsle at Sitabuldi, and the Holkar at Mahidpur. Several significant treaties were signed: the Treaty of Poona with the Peshwa in June 1817, the Treaty of Gwalior with Sindhia in November 1817, and the Treaty of Mandsaur with Holkar in January 1818. In June 1818, the Peshwa finally surrendered, leading to the dissolution of the Maratha confederacy and the abolition of the peshwaship. Peshwa Bajirao became a British retainer at Bithur near Kanpur. Pratap Singh, a direct descendant of Shivaji, was appointed as the ruler of a small principality called Satara, which was created from the Peshwa's former dominions.

Why the Marathas Lost

• The defeat of the Marathas by the English in the Third Anglo-Maratha War can be attributed to several reasons:
• Inept Leadership: The later Maratha leaders, including Bajirao II, Daulatrao Sindhia, and Jaswantrao Holkar, were ineffective and self-serving. They lacked the leadership qualities required to match the capabilities of English officials such as Elphinstone, John Malcolm, and Arthur Wellesley.
• Defective Nature of Maratha State: The cohesion of the Maratha state was artificial and precarious. There was no concerted effort to improve communal conditions, promote education, or unify the people. The Maratha rise was based on religious-nationalistic movements, which proved inadequate when facing a well-organized European power like the British.
• Loose Political Set-up: The Maratha empire functioned as a loose confederation with the Chhatrapati and later the Peshwa at the helm. Powerful chiefs like the Gaikwad, Holkar, Sindhia, and Bhonsle enjoyed semi-independent status and only paid lip service to the authority of the Peshwa. Internal divisions and hostilities among the Maratha chiefs weakened the overall state.
• Inferior Military System: While the Marathas displayed personal prowess and valour, they were inferior to the English in terms of military organization, weaponry, disciplined action, and effective leadership. Divided command and treachery within the ranks contributed to the Maratha's failures. The Marathas also neglected the importance of artillery and failed to adopt modern warfare techniques adequately.
• Unstable Economic Policy: The Maratha leadership failed to develop a stable economic policy that could adapt to changing times. The absence of industries and limited foreign trade opportunities hindered the economic development of the Maratha state, ultimately affecting its political stability.
• Superior English Diplomacy and Espionage: The English demonstrated superior diplomatic skills in winning allies and isolating the Marathas. The disunity among the Maratha chiefs made it easier for the English to take an offensive stance. The English maintained a well-organized spy system, gathering valuable information about their enemies while the Marathas lacked sufficient knowledge about their opponents.
• Progressive English Outlook: The English, influenced by the forces of the Renaissance, had a progressive outlook, while the Marathas remained steeped in medievalism and traditional social hierarchy. The Maratha leaders paid little attention to the practical aspects of governance, making it difficult to unite the empire.
• Overall, the combination of these factors, including weak leadership, a defective political system, military shortcomings, economic instability, and diplomatic disadvantages, led to the defeat of the Marathas by the English.
• Regarding the conquest of Sindh, the English gradually developed an interest in the region due to trade facilities authorized by a Mughal Farman (royal order) in 1630. The rise of the Talpuras Amirs, a Baloch tribe, in the 18th century resulted in their acquiring power and influence in Sindh. The English initially established a factory in Thatta under the Kallora chiefs but faced obstacles later on. Various treaties were then negotiated, including the Treaty of 'Eternal Friendship' in 1807 and the Treaty of 1832, which confirmed English privileges in Sindh and established a defensive arrangement. Lord Auckland's interest in Sindh was driven by the need to counter a potential Russian invasion and gain influence in Afghanistan. The English gradually turned Sindh into a British protectorate through treaties and interventions.