• The tribal communities, who had their own social and economic systems before British rule, revolted against the British administration due to the harmful impact of British policies on their self-sufficient economy and communities. The tribals relied on the land and forests for their livelihood, and the British policies disrupted this balance. The tribal revolts were anti-colonial in nature, as they were directed against the colonial administration. The tribals often resorted to traditional weapons like bows and arrows and engaged in violent resistance. The British authorities responded harshly, considering them criminals and anti-social elements. The tribals faced confiscation of property, imprisonment, and even execution. However, these tribal movements remained confined to specific regions of India.
• Tribal revolts were significant and frequent during the period of British rule in India. These revolts were often characterized by their militancy and violence, as tribal communities resisted the encroachment of colonial powers on their lands, resources, and way of life. The tribal population, living in remote and marginalized regions, faced numerous challenges under British rule, including dispossession of land, exploitation by outsiders, cultural suppression, and forced labour.
• Tribal revolts were a response to these oppressive conditions and a means of asserting their autonomy and rights. The tribal communities, with their distinct identities, social structures, and traditional practices, sought to protect their land, forests, and resources from encroachment by the British administration and outsiders.
• Many tribal revolts were driven by a sense of injustice, loss of livelihood, and cultural degradation. Tribes such as the Santhals in Bengal, the Bhils in Central India, and the Gonds in present-day Madhya Pradesh were involved in several major uprisings against British rule.
• The Santhal Rebellion (1855-1856) led by the Santhal tribe in present-day Jharkhand was one of the most significant tribal revolts. The Santhals, who faced increasing exploitation and oppression by moneylenders, zamindars, and colonial administrators, rose in armed rebellion to defend their rights and reclaim their lands.
• Similarly, the Bhil Rebellion (1818-1822) in Central India and the Gond Rebellion (1857-1858) in present-day Madhya Pradesh were fierce uprisings against British domination. These revolts were marked by tribal warriors employing guerrilla warfare tactics and targeting symbols of colonial authority.
• Tribal revolts often posed significant challenges to the British administration due to the difficult terrain, guerrilla tactics, and the resilience of tribal communities. The rebels took advantage of their knowledge of the local terrain and their unity as a community to mount an effective resistance against British forces.
• The tribal revolts, while not always successful in achieving their immediate objectives, played a crucial role in highlighting the grievances of tribal communities and drawing attention to the injustices they faced. These revolts laid the foundation for future movements and struggles for tribal rights and autonomy in independent India.

The Santhal Rebellion (1855-57): 

• The Santhal Rebellion, which took place from 1855 to 1857, occurred in the region known as Daman-i-Koh or Santhal Pargana, extending from Bhagalpur in Bihar to Orissa. The Santhals, like other tribes, had traditionally lived in harmony with the forests and cultivated their land. However, the arrival of British officials introduced exploitative traders, moneylenders, zamindars, and merchants into their lives. These outsiders forced the Santhals into debt by providing goods on credit and charging high-interest rates during harvest time. As a result, the Santhals lost their crops, ploughs, bullocks, and even their land, becoming trapped as bonded labourers to repay their debts. This exploitation led to a rebellion by the once-peaceful tribal communities against British officials, zamindars, and moneylenders. Sidhu and Kanu emerged as prominent leaders of the Santhal rebellion, fighting valiantly against the British government. Despite their heroic efforts, the Santhal Rebellion was ultimately crushed in an uneven battle. However, it served as a source of inspiration for future agrarian struggles and resistance movements.

Munda Rebellion (1899-1900): 

• The Munda Rebellion, occurring from 1899 to 1900, was a significant uprising that took place following the revolt of 1857. The Mundas, who traditionally held rights as the original clearers of the forest, enjoyed certain privileges that were not extended to other tribes. However, even before the arrival of the British, their land system had been undermined by merchants and moneylenders. When the British entered these areas, they further accelerated the destruction of this system by introducing contractors and traders. These contractors required labourers to work for them as indentured labourers, which resulted in the displacement of the Mundas. This displacement and exploitation at the hands of the British and their contractors sparked the Munda Rebellion.
• Birsa Munda, a prominent leader of the rebellion, had received some education from missionaries, making him more aware of the situation. He encouraged his fellow tribespeople to uphold the tradition of worshiping sacred groves, which was crucial in preventing the British from encroaching upon their wastelands. Birsa Munda fought against the moneylenders (Mahajan) and English officials in defence of his people's rights and traditions. The Munda Rebellion stands as a significant event in the struggle against British colonialism and the preservation of tribal identity and autonomy.
• Birsa Munda and his followers did engage in attacks on police stations, churches, and missionaries as part of their rebellion. It is unfortunate that the rebellion was ultimately suppressed, and Birsa Munda died in prison soon after in 1900.
• The sacrifices made by Birsa Munda and the Munda Rebellion were not in vain. Their struggle and resistance played a significant role in raising awareness about the plight of the tribal communities and their fight against exploitation. The Chotanagpur Tenancy Act of 1908, which provided some land ownership rights to the people and banned bonded labour, was an important outcome of their resistance.
• Birsa Munda's legacy remains enduring and influential. He is remembered as a courageous leader and a symbol of tribal empowerment and identity. His role in the Munda Rebellion continues to inspire and remind us of the ongoing struggles for land rights, social justice, and dignity for tribal communities in India.

Jaintia and Garo Rebellion Rebellion (1860-1870s):

• The Jaintia and Garo Rebellion, which took place in the 1860s and 1870s, was a significant resistance movement in the North-Eastern part of India, specifically in present-day Meghalaya. The rebellion was sparked by the British construction of a strategic road connecting the Brahmaputra Valley with Sylhet.
• The Jaintias and Garos, recognizing the road's importance for the movement of British troops, opposed its construction. The unrest began in 1827 when the Jaintias attempted to halt the work, and it soon spread to the Garo hills. In response, the British burned several villages belonging to the Jaintias and Garos.
• Tensions further escalated when the British introduced House Tax and Income Tax in the 1860s, which added to the grievances of the local population. The British authorities took decisive actions against the rebellion. The Jaintias' leader, U Kiang Nongbah, was captured and publicly hanged, while the Garo leader, Pa Togan Sangma, was defeated by the British forces.
• Although the Jaintia and Garo Rebellion was ultimately quelled by the British, it represented a significant resistance against British colonial rule in the region. The rebellion highlighted the discontent and resistance of the local communities against British policies and encroachments on their land and resources. The memory of the rebellion and the sacrifices made by its leaders continue to shape the collective identity and historical consciousness of the people in Meghalaya.

The Uprising of the Bhils (1818-1831): 

• The Uprising of the Bhils (1818-1831) was a revolt by the Bhil community concentrated in the Khandesh region, which came under British occupation in 1818. The Bhils, considering the British as outsiders, rebelled against them at the instigation of Trimbakji, a rebel minister of Baji Rao II.

The Kol Uprising (1831-1832):

• The Kol Uprising (1831-1832) took place in Singhbhum, in the Chhotanagpur area, where the Kols enjoyed autonomy under their chiefs. However, the arrival of the British threatened their independence. The transfer of tribal lands, the influx of moneylenders and merchants, and the imposition of British laws created tension, leading the Kols to organize and rebel. The British had to deploy troops from distant places to suppress the uprising.

The Mappila Uprisings (1836-1854):

• The Mappila Uprisings (1836-1854) occurred in the Malabar region, where the Mappilas, Muslim cultivating tenants, landless labourers, and fishermen, revolted against the British occupation and the new land laws imposed by them. The atrocities committed by the landlords, mainly Hindus, further fueled the Mappilas' resistance. The British faced significant challenges in crushing the Mappila uprising, which persisted for several years.

Different Causes for Mainland and North-Eastern Tribal Revolts

• The causes of mainland tribal revolts and frontier tribal revolts in the northeastern part of India differed in several aspects.
• Mainland tribal revolts were primarily triggered by the impact of British land settlements and the disruption of the tribals' traditional social fabric. The extension of settled agriculture by the British East India Company led to the loss of tribal lands, an influx of non-tribals into tribal areas, and the curbing of shifting cultivation in forests. The establishment of reserved forests and restrictions on timber use and grazing further increased the control of the colonial government over forest areas. Exploitation by outsiders such as police, traders, and moneylenders aggravated the tribals' sufferings. Additionally, the imposition of general laws that interfered with their customs and traditions, as well as the presence of Christian missionaries seen as representatives of the alien rule, added to the resentment among the tribals.
• On the other hand, the movements of tribes in the northeastern frontier regions had distinct characteristics. These tribes often had cultural and tribal links with countries across the border and were less concerned with the nationalist struggle. Their revolts were more focused on seeking political autonomy within the Indian Union or complete independence. Unlike mainland tribal revolts, the northeastern tribes were generally in control of their land and forest areas, and their movements were not primarily forest-based or agrarian in nature. The British entered the northeastern regions later than the non-frontier tribal areas, and the frontier tribal revolts persisted for a longer duration. In the colonial period, de-Sanskritization movements emerged among frontier tribes, such as the Meiteis movement denouncing the malpractices of neo-Vaishnavite Brahmins during Church and Maharaja's rule. However, Sanskritisation movements were largely absent in the northeastern frontier region.
• These differences in causes and characteristics highlight the specific socio-economic, political, and cultural contexts in which mainland and frontier tribal revolts took place under British rule.

Characteristics of Tribal Revolts

• The tribal revolts during the colonial period shared some common characteristics despite occurring at different times and in different regions:
• Tribal Identity and Ethnic Ties: The uprisings were driven by a strong sense of tribal identity and solidarity. Tribes came together to resist external forces that threatened their way of life.
• Differentiation of 'Outsiders': Not all outsiders were considered enemies. Poor individuals who lived by manual labour or had supportive roles within the village were often spared, while violence was directed towards moneylenders and traders who were perceived as agents of the colonial government.
• Resentment Against Imposed Laws: The tribal uprisings were fueled by resentment towards the imposition of laws by the colonial government, which were seen as a threat to the traditional socio economic framework of the tribes. These laws were perceived as attempts to undermine their customs and way of life.
• Leadership of Messiah-like Figures: Many uprisings were led by charismatic leaders who emerged as messiah-like figures. These leaders inspire their people to revolt against the perceived oppressors and offer hope for an end to their suffering caused by the intrusion of outsiders.
• Imbalance of Power: The tribal uprisings faced significant challenges due to the technological and military advantage held by their opponents. The tribes often fought with outdated weapons and techniques, while their adversaries possessed modern firearms and superior military strategies.
• Despite these challenges, the tribal uprisings represented resistance against colonialism and the encroachment on tribal lands, culture, and way of life. They served as expressions of the tribes' determination to protect their autonomy and maintain their unique identities.

• Important Tribal Movements of Mainland
• Some important tribal movements are discussed below. It may be noted that most tribal movements, if we leave out the frontier tribal areas, were concentrated in central India, the west-central region and the south.

Pahariyas’ Rebellion

• The Pahariyas' Rebellion, also known as the Paharia Revolt, took place in the Raj Mahal Hills region in present-day Jharkhand, India, in 1778. The Pahariyas were a martial tribe residing in the hilly areas, and they rose up against the British expansion and encroachment on their territory.
• The rebellion was triggered by the British administration's attempts to assert control over the Raj Mahal Hills and impose their authority on the Pahariya people. The Pahariyas resisted the British presence and their interference in their traditional way of life.
• In response to the rebellion, the British authorities declared the Pahariya-inhabited region as a "damni-kol" area. Damni-kol, meaning "forbidden territory," implied that the British recognized the Pahariyas' resistance and agreed not to interfere or extend their administration further into that particular area. This declaration was an attempt to pacify the Pahariyas and restore peace in the region.
• By designating the territory as damni-kol, the British hoped to establish a buffer zone between their expanding territories and the Pahariya stronghold. It was a strategy to prevent further conflicts and maintain a relatively stable relationship with the Pahariya tribe.
• The Pahariya rebellion and the subsequent establishment of the damni-kol area showcased the resistance of tribal communities against colonial intrusion and their struggle to protect their lands, autonomy, and way of life. It was one of the many instances where indigenous tribes in India resisted British expansion and asserted their rights and sovereignty.

Chuar Uprising

• The Chuar Uprising, also known as the Revolt of the Jungle Mahal, took place in the Jungle Mahal region of the Midnapore and Bankura districts in Bengal, India. The uprising was primarily led by the Chuar aboriginal tribesmen, who were farmers and hunters residing in the region.
• The Chuar uprising had multiple waves of rebellion. The first phase occurred from 1766 to 1772, followed by a resurgence between 1795 and 1816. The Chuars were particularly prominent in the Manbhum and Barabhum regions, specifically in the hills between Barabhum and Ghatsila.
• Several factors contributed to the Chuar uprising. Famine, increased land revenue demands, and economic distress played a significant role in provoking the tribesmen to take up arms against the British administration. The Chuars held their lands under a feudal tenure system but were not deeply attached to the soil, often transitioning from farming to hunting based on the directives of their jungle chiefs or zamindars (landlords).
• In 1768, Jagannath Singh, the zamindar of Ghatsila, joined forces with thousands of Chuars in armed rebellion, forcing the British authorities to capitulate. In 1771, Chuar leaders such as Shyam Ganjan of Dhadka, Subla Singh of Kaliapal, and Dubraj rose in rebellion, but they were suppressed by the British forces. However, the most significant uprising occurred in 1798 under Durjan (or Durjol) Singh, the zamindar of Raipur. Dispossessed of his estate due to the implementation of Bengal Regulations, Durjan Singh's followers, a group of 1,500 Chuars, engaged in violent activities in Raipur to halt the auction of the estate. The British brutally suppressed the revolt.
• Other notable leaders of the Chuar uprising included Madhab Singh, the brother of the Raja of Barabhum, Raja Mohan Singh, the zamindar of Juriah, and Lachman Singh of Dulma.
• It's worth mentioning that the term "Chuar" has been considered derogatory by some historians. As an alternative, they refer to this uprising as the Revolt of the Jungle Mahal, highlighting the geographic and cultural context of the rebellion.

Kol Mutiny (1831)

• The Kol Mutiny of 1831 took place in Chhotanagpur, an area covering Ranchi, Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, Palamau, and western parts of Manbhum. The Kols, along with other tribes, were the indigenous inhabitants of this region. The mutiny was triggered by the widespread transfer of land from Kol headmen to outsiders, including Hindu, Sikh, and Muslim farmers and money-lenders, who were oppressive and imposed heavy taxes on the Kols.
• The British judicial and revenue policies also had a detrimental impact on the traditional social conditions of the Kols, further fueling their discontent. In 1831, under the leadership of Buddho Bhagat, the Kol rebels rose up against these oppressive forces. They engaged in acts of violence, killing or burning approximately a thousand outsiders in the region.
• The British authorities had to undertake large-scale military operations to restore order and quell the rebellion. The Kol Mutiny of 1831 represented the Kols' resistance against the encroachment on their land, exploitation by outsiders, and the adverse effects of British policies on their traditional way of life.

Ho and Munda Uprisings (1820-1837)

• The Ho and Munda uprisings took place during the period from 1820 to 1837 and were significant tribal movements in the region of Jharkhand.
• The initial uprising was organized by the Raja of Parahat, who rallied the Ho tribals against the occupation of Singhbhum. This revolt persisted until 1827 when the Ho tribals were eventually compelled to surrender. However, in 1831, they once again initiated a rebellion, this time joined by the Mundas of Chotanagpur. The primary reasons for their revolt were the newly introduced farming revenue policy and the influx of Bengalis into their region, which they opposed.
• Although the revolt was suppressed in 1832, the Ho tribals continued their operations until 1837. However, it was not long before the Mundas also rose up again. In 1899-1900, the Mundas, led by Birsa Munda, launched a significant uprising known as the Ulgulan. This rebellion started as a religious movement but gained political momentum as it fought against the introduction of feudal and zamindari tenures, as well as exploitation by money lenders and forest contractors.
• During this period, the Mundas asserted their claim over Chhotanagpur in 1879. In response, the British deployed armed forces to suppress the uprising. Birsa Munda, the prominent leader of the movement, was eventually captured and imprisoned.
• Overall, the Ho and Munda uprisings represented the tribes' resistance against colonial occupation, exploitative policies, and encroachment on their lands and resources. These movements were significant expressions of tribal identity and aspirations for autonomy and self-governance.

The Santhal Rebellion (1855-56)

• The Santhal Rebellion, also known as the Santhal Hul or Santhal Uprising, took place from 1855 to 1856 in the Rajmahal Hills region of Bihar (now in Jharkhand), India.
• The Santhals, an agrarian community, had settled in the plains of the Rajmahal hills after fleeing from their original homeland due to various reasons including oppression and displacement. However, their new settlement was marked by continued oppression by the local zamindars (landlords) and money-lenders who colluded with the police and others to exploit and dispossess the Santhal peasants.
• The discontent among the Santhals eventually erupted into a rebellion against the oppressive zamindari system. Led by two brothers, Sidhu and Kanhu, the Santhals not only sought to challenge the zamindars but also declared their opposition to British rule. They proclaimed the area between Bhagalpur and Rajmahal as an autonomous region, free from Company (British East India Company) rule.
• The rebellion gained momentum as many Santhals joined the cause, and it transformed into an anti-British movement. The Santhals fought against both the zamindars and the British administration, seeking justice, freedom from exploitation, and self-governance.
• However, the rebellion was eventually suppressed by the British forces in 1856. Despite their resistance, the Santhals were unable to withstand the military might and resources of the colonial power. The suppression of the rebellion marked the end of the Santhal Uprising.
• The Santhal Rebellion remains a significant event in India's history as it represented the struggles of an indigenous community against oppressive systems and British colonialism. It highlighted the desire for autonomy, land rights, and freedom from exploitation among the Santhals.

Khond Uprisings (1837-1856)

• The Khond uprisings occurred from 1837 to 1856 in the hilly tracts extending from Odisha to the Srikakulam and Visakhapatnam districts of Andhra Pradesh, India. The Khonds, along with other tribes such as Ghumsar and Kalahandi, revolted against the rule of the British East India Company during this period.
• Chakra Bisoi, a young raja, emerged as a leader of the Khond uprising. The revolt was primarily driven by their opposition to various aspects of Company rule. The Khonds protested against the suppression of their traditional practice of human sacrifice, the imposition of new taxes, and the intrusion of zamindars (landlords) into their territories. These issues sparked resentment and resistance among the Khonds, leading to their participation in the uprisings.
• During the revolt, the Khonds were joined by other tribal communities in the region who shared similar grievances and concerns. Together, they fought against the oppressive policies and practices enforced by the British administration.
• However, with the disappearance of Chakra Bisoi, the uprising gradually came to an end. The loss of their charismatic leader weakened the resistance, and the British forces were able to suppress the rebellion.
• It's worth noting that a later Khond rebellion took place in 1914 in the region of Odisha. This uprising was driven by the hope of ending foreign rule and establishing an autonomous government for the Khonds.
• The Khond uprisings represent the resistance of indigenous communities against the imposition of colonial rule, as well as their efforts to protect their cultural practices and maintain control over their lands and resources.

Koya Revolts

• The Koya revolts occurred in the eastern Godavari region of modern Andhra Pradesh, India, during various periods in the 19th century. The Koyas, along with the Khonda Sara chiefs, staged multiple uprisings against British colonial rule.
• The Koya revolts took place in the years 1803, 1840, 1845, 1858, 1861, and 1862. They expressed their grievances through armed rebellion in response to several issues. The Koyas and Khonda Sara chiefs resented the oppressive actions of the police and moneylenders who exploited them. They also protested against the implementation of new regulations that affected their traditional way of life and the denial of their customary rights over forest areas.
• In 1879-80, under the leadership of Tomma Sora, the Koyas rose in rebellion once again. Their discontent was fueled by similar concerns, including the oppressive behaviour of the authorities, economic exploitation, and the infringement on their customary forest rights.
• After the death of Tomma Sora, another rebellion was organized in 1886, this time led by Raja Anantayyar, to further resist the British colonial administration and assert their rights.
• The Koya revolts were part of the broader pattern of tribal uprisings against British rule in different regions of India during the colonial period. These uprisings were driven by the indigenous communities' desire to protect their autonomy, resist oppression, and defend their traditional way of life.
• The Koya revolts highlight the resistance and resilience of tribal communities in the face of colonial encroachment and their determination to safeguard their rights and interests.

Bhil Revolts

• The Bhil revolts took place in the Western Ghats region, primarily in the areas controlling the mountain passes between the northern and Deccan regions of India. These revolts occurred during the period of Company rule in India.
• The Bhils, a tribal community, rose in rebellion against the British East India Company's rule from 1817 to 1819. The factors that contributed to their uprising included famine, economic distress, and grievances related to misgovernment. The Bhils, like other tribal communities, suffered from the adverse effects of British policies and exploitation.
• The British authorities responded to the Bhil revolts by employing a combination of force and conciliatory measures to control the uprising. Despite their efforts, the Bhils rebelled again in subsequent years, including revolts in 1825, 1831, and 1846. These repeated uprisings demonstrated the persistence of the Bhil resistance against colonial rule.
• In the early 20th century, a Bhil reformer named Govind Guru emerged to lead the Bhils of south Rajasthan, particularly in Banswara and Sunth states. Govind Guru played a crucial role in organizing the Bhils and advocating for their rights. Under his leadership, the Bhils fought for the establishment of a Bhil Raj, a self-governing Bhil state.
• The Bhil revolts and the efforts of leaders like Govind Guru reflect the ongoing struggle of the Bhil community to resist colonial oppression and assert their autonomy. These revolts were rooted in the Bhils' aspirations for better living conditions, protection of their rights, and the preservation of their cultural identity in the face of British colonial domination.

Koli Risings

• The Koli revolts occurred in the areas neighbouring the Bhil communities during the period of British Company rule in India. The Kolis, a tribal group, rose in rebellion against the British administration in 1829, 1839, and again from 1844 to 1848.
• The Kolis expressed resentment towards the imposition of the Company's rule, which had negative consequences for their community. One of the key grievances was the large-scale unemployment that resulted from the British administration's policies. Additionally, the dismantling of their forts by the British further fueled their discontent.
• The Kolis, like other tribal communities, faced significant challenges and disruptions due to the British presence and their policies. The revolts by the Kolis were an expression of their resistance against the adverse effects of colonial rule on their livelihoods and social structures.
• These uprisings highlight the ongoing struggles of tribal communities during the colonial period and their efforts to protect their rights, maintain their way of life, and resist the impositions of the British administration. The Koli revolts were part of a broader pattern of resistance and resilience demonstrated by various tribal groups across India during the period of British rule.

Ramosi Risings

• The Ramosi risings refer to the uprisings led by the Ramosi tribe, who were hill tribes residing in the Western Ghats region of India. These uprisings were a response to British rule and the policies of annexation implemented by the British administration.
• Following the annexation of Maratha territories by the British, the Ramosis, who had previously been employed by the Maratha administration, lost their source of livelihood. This loss of livelihood and the imposition of British rule led to their discontent and resistance.
• In 1822, the Ramosis, under the leadership of Chittur Singh, rose in rebellion and carried out plundering activities in the Satara region. Subsequently, in 1825-26, there were further eruptions led by Umaji Naik of Poona and his supporter Bapu Trimbakji Sawant.
• The Ramosi uprisings were a manifestation of the resistance against the British policy of annexation and the socio-economic changes that accompanied British rule. The loss of employment opportunities and the disruption of their traditional way of life fueled their grievances and led to acts of rebellion and plunder.
• These uprisings reflect the broader context of resistance and unrest during the period of British colonial rule in India. Various tribal communities and local groups across different regions expressed their resistance against British rule, highlighting the complex dynamics between colonial powers and indigenous populations during this time.

Tribal Movements: Period, Region, Causes at a Glance

• Pahariyas' Rebellion (1778; RajMahal Hills): Against British expansion on their lands.
• Chuar Uprisings (1776): Against rise in demands and economic privation by the British.
• Kol Uprisings (1831): Against the expansion of British rule on their lands and transfer of their lands to outsiders.
• Ho and Munda Uprisings:
• (a) Raja Parahat (1827; Singhbhum and Chottanagpur): Against the occupation of Singhbhum by the British.
• (b) Ho tribals and Mundas (1831): Against the newly introduced farming revenue policy.
• (c) Mundas led by Birsa Munda (1899-1900; south of Ranchi): Against feudalism, zamindari tenures, and exploitation.
• (d) Ulgulan uprising supported by Birsa Munda (1860-1920): Against feudalism, zamindari tenures, moneylenders, and forest contractors.
• Santhal Rebellion (1855-56; Bihar): Against practices of zamindars and moneylenders, later turned anti-British.
• Kondh Uprisings:
• (a) Chakra Bisnoi (1837-56): Against interference in tribal customs and imposition of new taxes.
• (b) 1914 in Orissa: Hope for an end to foreign rule and autonomy.
• Naikada Movement (1860s; Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat): Against British and caste Hindus.
• Kharwar Rebellion (1870s; Bihar): Against revenue settlement activities.
• Khonda Dora Campaign (1900; Dabur region in Vishakapatnam): Led by Khonda Doras against oppression and denial of rights.
• Bhil Revolts:
• (a) 1817-19: Against Company Rule in the Western Ghats.
• (b) 1913: Fight for a Bhil Raj in South Rajasthan.
• Bhuyan and Juang Rebellions:
• (a) Ratna Nayak (1867-68): Against the installation of a British protege on the throne.
• (b) Dharni Dhar Nayak (1891-93): Against the installation of a British protege on the throne.
• Koya Revolts:
• Tomma Sora (1879-80): Against oppression by police, moneylenders, new regulations, and denial of forest rights.
• Raja Anantayyar (1886): Against oppression by police, moneylenders, and denial of rights.
• Bastar Revolt (1910; Jagdalpur): Against new feudal and forest levies.
• Tana Bhagat Movements (1914-1915; Chottanagpur): Against interference of outsiders, began as a Sanskritisation movement.
• Rampa Revolts (1916, 1922-1924; Rampa region in Andhra Pradesh): Against British interference, led by Alluri Sitarama Raju of the Koyas.
• Jharkhand Uprising (1920 onwards; parts of Bihar, Orissa, and West Bengal): Demand for a separate Jharkhand state.
• Forest Satyagrahas:
• (a) Chenchu tribals (the 1920s; Guntur district in Andhra): Against increasing British control over forests.
• (b) Karwars of Palamau (1930s; Bihar): Against increasing British control over forests.
• Gond Uprising (1940s): To bring together believers of Gonddharma.

Tribal Movements of the North-East

Khasi Uprising

• The Khasi Uprising took place in the hilly region between Garo and Jaintia Hills during the 1830s. The East India Company had plans to construct a road connecting the Brahmaputra Valley with Sylhet, which led to an influx of outsiders including Englishmen, Bengalis, and labourers from the plains. The Khasis, along with the Garos, Khamptis, and Singphos, united under the leadership of Tirath Singh to resist the presence of these outsiders. What began as a resistance against the influx of strangers soon turned into a broader revolt against British rule in the area.
• However, by 1833, the superior military force of the British managed to suppress the uprising and regain control over the region. The Khasi Uprising serves as an example of the indigenous tribes' resistance against British expansion and the imposition of outsiders on their lands.

North-East Frontier Tribal Movements: Year, Region, Major Causes

Movements Before 1857

• Ahoms' Revolt (1828-1833; Assam): The Ahom tribe revolted against the British East India Company due to the non-fulfilment of promises made after the Burmese War. The uprising was suppressed by the Company through the strategy of dividing the Ahom kingdom.
• Khasis' Revolt (the 1830s; the hilly region between Jaintia and Garo Hills): Led by Tirath Singh, the Nunklow ruler, the Khasi tribe revolted against the occupation of their hilly region by outsiders, including Englishmen, Bengalis, and labourers from the plains.
• Singphos' Rebellion (1830s; Assam): The Singpho tribe rebelled against British rule, leading to the murder of a British political agent of Assam by Singphos in 1839. The rebellion was ultimately suppressed by the British.
• These movements reflect the resistance of various indigenous tribes in the North-East Frontier against British expansion and the encroachment on their lands. The tribes fought against perceived injustices, broken promises, and the intrusion of outsiders into their territories.

Movements After 1857

• Kukis’ Revolt (1917-19; Manipur); against British policies of recruiting labour during the First World War.
• Revolts in Tripura; against hike in house tax rates and against settlement of outsiders in the region (a) led by Parikshit Jamatia (1863) (b) the Reangs’ revolt led by Ratnamani (1942-43) (c) led by Bharti Singh (1920s)
• Zeliangsong Movement (1920s; Manipur); led by the Zemi, Liangmei and Rongmei tribes; against the failure of the British to protect them during the Kuki violence in 1917-19.
• Naga movement (1905-31; Manipur); led by Jadonang; against British rule and for setting up a Naga raj.
• Heraka Cult (1930s; Manipur); led by Gaidinliu; the movement was suppressed but Kabui Naga Association was formed in 1946.

Other Smaller Movements

• were the revolt of the Syntengs of Jaintia Hills in 1860-62; the Phulaguri peasants’ rebellion in 1861, the revolt of the Saflas in 1872-73; the uprising of the Kacha Nagas of Cachhar in 1882; and a women’s war in Manipur in 1904.

Singphos Rebellion

• The rebellion of the Singphos in Assam in early 1830 was immediately quelled but they continued to organise revolts. An uprising in 1839 saw the death of the British political agent. Chief Nirang Phidu led an uprising in 1843, which involved an attack on the British garrison and the death of many soldiers.
• Some of the smaller movements were those of the Mishmis (in 1836); the Khampti rebellion in Assam between 1839 and 1842; the Lushais’ revolt in 1842 and 1844, when they attacked villages in Manipur.