The Sangam Age

• The Sangam age is considered to have lasted from 300 BC to AD 300. It constitutes an important chapter in the history of South India.
• The three empires that ruled the South of India during the Sangam age were the Cholas, Cheras, and the Pandyas.
• The period roughly between the third century BC and AD third century in South India is known as the Sangam period. The first detailed description of the South Indian states is found in Sangam literature.

Sources of Sangam Age 

Sources of Sangam age are as follows:

Literary Sources

• The sources that define the history of the Sangam age are Tolkappiyam, Ettuthogai/Ettuthogal, and Pattupattu. Among these, Tolkappiyam was the earliest.

Archaeological Sources

• The archaeological sources for the Sangam period are limited in number. They may be classified into Epigraphy, Excavations, and Coins.

Epigraphy

• The Ashokan Edicts mention the Chera, Chola, and Pandya kingdoms.
• The Hathigumpha Inscription of the Kalinga king, Kharavela, also references the three Tamil Kingdoms. 

Excavations

• Robert Bruce Foote conducted the first excavations at Adhichanallur, revealing numerous iron, bronze, and gold articles depicting ancient Tamil life.
• Mortimer Wheeler excavated Arikkamedu near Pondicherry, discovering Roman pottery, glass bowls, gems, and coins, confirming Roman-Tamil commercial contacts during the Sangam age.
• A Buddhist Vihara found at Kilaiyur near Kaveripoompattinam dates to the post-Sangam period.
• Other significant excavation sites include Uraiyur, Kanchipuram, and Kodumanal.

Underwater Archaeology

• Modern archaeologists conducted underwater excavations near Poompuhar, revealing a shipwreck that sheds light on Sangam period history.

Coins

• Tamil Kings issued limited gold and silver coins during the Sangam period. However, Roman gold and silver coins are widespread in Tamil Nadu, confirming trade relations.

Foreign Accounts

• Greek and Roman writers, such as Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny, and Ptolemy, offer insights into the society and economy of Sangam Tamils. 
• Sri Lankan Buddhist accounts, Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa, also provide valuable evidence.

Three Sangams

• According to Tamil legends, three Sangams existed in ancient Tamil Nadu, supported by the Pandyas. 
• The first, held at Madurai, was attended by gods and sages. 
• The second, at Kapatapuram, saw the destruction of literary works except for Tolkappiyam.
• The third, at Madurai, produced voluminous literature, with only a few surviving works. 
• While considered mythical by some due to discrepancies in traditional dates, these Tamil literary works remain crucial for understanding the Sangam age.

The Early Kingdoms

• In the 1st century AD, three states emerged under the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas in the southernmost part of the Indian peninsula.
• The collective term for the three ancient kingdoms, Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas, was Tamilakha, or the Tamil Realm.
• The form of government during the Sangam period was a Hereditary Monarchy. Each dynasty had a unique royal emblem: Tiger for the Cholas, Fish for the Pandyas, and Bow for the Cheras.

Brief Description about the Chola, Chera, and the Pandya Kingdom

The Chola Kingdom

• Known as Cholamandalam or Coromandal, the Chola kingdom occupied the Northeastern part of the Pandyas' territory, situated between the Pennar and Velur rivers.
• The political epicenter of the Cholas was Uraiyur, renowned for its cotton trade.
• In the mid-second century BC, Chola king Elara conquered Sri Lanka and ruled for nearly 50 years.
• The kingdom's true foundation was established in the 2nd century AD by the renowned king Karikala, who founded the city of Puhar and constructed a 160 km embankment along the Kaveri River.
• Pattinappalai, authored by Kadiyalur Uruttirangannanar, vividly portrays the life and military achievements of Karikala, a significant Chola ruler.
• Under Karikala's rule, trade and commerce flourished, accompanied by the construction of irrigation tanks along the Kaveri River to facilitate farming on reclaimed land from the forest.
• The Great Battle of Venni, near Thanjavur, saw Karikala defeating a coalition of rulers, led by Cheras and Pandya kings.
• Karikala's naval strength was formidable, leading to the conquest of Sri Lanka, while Puhar, identified as Kaveripattanam, served as the thriving Chola capital for trade and commerce.
• The decline of the Chola kingdom ensued with weak successors to Karikala and attacks from neighboring Cheras and Pandyas.

Chera Kingdom:

• Also known as Keralaputras, the Cheras were situated to the West and North of the Pandya kingdom, with their capital at Vanji or Karur, covering modern Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
• Udiyanjeral, an early Chera ruler, earned his title from serving both armies in the Kurukshetra war.
• Pugalur inscriptions from the first-century reference three generations of Chera kings, with Musiri and Tondi as crucial seaports.
• Romans stationed regiments in the Chera region, specifically at Muziris (modern Cranganore), safeguarding their trade interests and even building a temple of Augustus.
• Senguttuvan, the most prominent Chera king, earned the title "The Red or Good Chera." His conquests extended beyond the Ganga, invading Northern India.
• Senguttuvan's military exploits, chronicled in the epic Silapathikaram, recount his Himalayan campaign where he triumphed over numerous rulers from Northern India. Notably, he is credited with constructing a Temple of Kannagi, the Goddess of chastity, and establishing the renowned Pattini cult. Additionally, he earned historical significance by being the first to dispatch an ambassador from South India to China.

Pandya Kingdom:

• The Pandya Kingdom is centered around Madurai.
• Sangam literature and Megasthenes' accounts mention the rule of Pandyas, with one text highlighting a female ruler.
• Flourishing trade ties with the Roman Empire included sending embassies to Roman Emperor Augustus.
• Pandyan kings were noted for Vedic sacrifices, with Mudukudumi as one of the earliest rulers.
• Nedunjeliyan, a prominent Pandya king, accused Kovalan of theft, leading to the city of Madurai facing a curse from Kannagi. The Pandyas embraced the Vedic religion and supported Brahmin priests. Their power waned with the Kalabhras tribe invasion.

Minor Chieftains:

• Beyond the major Tamil kingdoms, local chieftains known as Velirs ruled various parts of Tamil Nadu.
• Sangam literature extensively details Velir leaders like Pari, Kari, Ori, Malayan, Elini, Pegan, Aay, and Nalli, with the Seven Patrons or Kadaiyelu Vallalgal being the most renowned.
• These chieftains generously supported Tamil poets, contributing to the cultural vibrancy during the Sangam age.

Sangam Administration:

• The Sangam literature sheds light on the administration during this period, highlighting a monarchy system.
• The king referred to as Vendan, Ko,