• In the early 19th century, the British became increasingly concerned about the expanding influence of Russia in Persia (modern-day Iran), which disrupted British plans for establishing a new trade route to India through the River Euphrates. The Treaty of Turkomanchai in 1828 further heightened British anxieties regarding Russian intentions in India.
• As a result, the British government began seeking a strategic frontier to safeguard their interests in India. They recognized that the passes of the northwest region, including those in Afghanistan, were crucial entry points that could potentially be used to invade India. Therefore, it became important for the British to have a friendly ruler in Afghanistan who would be under their influence and provide a buffer against potential Russian advances.
• This led to British involvement in Afghan affairs and a series of interventions in Afghan politics. The British sought to install rulers who were sympathetic to their interests and would ensure stability along the northwest frontier. These efforts eventually led to the First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-1842), in which the British deposed Dost Mohammad Khan and installed Shah Shuja as a puppet ruler in Kabul. However, this occupation faced significant resistance from Afghan tribes and ultimately ended in a disastrous retreat from Kabul.
• Despite the setbacks in the First Anglo-Afghan War, the British continued to maintain influence in Afghanistan through political manoeuvring and strategic alliances. The Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-1880) further solidified British control over Afghan foreign affairs, but Afghanistan retained its internal autonomy.
• Anglo-Afghan relations remained complex over the years, with periods of cooperation, tensions, and occasional conflicts. Afghanistan strove to maintain its independence and resist foreign interference, while the British sought to protect their interests in the region. The geopolitical rivalry between Britain and Russia, known as the Great Game, heavily influenced their interactions in Afghanistan.

Forward Policy of Auckland Auckland

• `The forward policy advocated by Governor-General Auckland in 1836 aimed to protect the boundary of British India from a potential Russian attack. It involved taking proactive measures to secure the borders, either through treaties with neighboring countries or by annexing them.
• In this context, the British government in India considered forming an alliance with the Amir of Afghanistan, Dost Mohammed, who desired British friendship. However, Dost Mohammed's condition for assistance in recovering Peshawar from the Sikhs was rejected by the British government.
• As a result, Dost Mohammed turned to Russia and Persia for support, which alarmed the British government. This prompted them to implement the forward policy and enter into a Tripartite Treaty in 1838. The treaty involved the British, Sikhs, and Shah Shuja, who had been deposed from the Afghan throne in 1809 and was living as a British pensioner at Ludhiana.
• The terms of the Tripartite Treaty were as follows:
• Shah Shuja would be restored to the Afghan throne with the assistance of the Sikhs, while the British remained in the background providing financial support.
• Shah Shuja would handle foreign affairs with the advice of the Sikhs and the British.
• Shah Shuja would relinquish his sovereign rights over the Amirs of Sindh in exchange for a significant sum of money.
• Shah Shuja would recognize the Sikh ruler, Maharaja Ranjit Singh's claims over Afghan territories on the right bank of the River Indus.
• The forward policy and the Tripartite Treaty were part of the larger geopolitical rivalry between Britain and Russia in Central Asia, known as the Great Game. However, these policies ultimately led to significant repercussions and conflicts, such as the First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-1842), as the British faced resistance from local Afghan tribes and encountered challenges in maintaining control over the region.

First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-1842)

• The First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-1842) was a conflict that arose from the implementation of the forward policy and the Tripartite Treaty of 1838. Despite a change in the political situation, with the removal of Persian and Russian threats, the British proceeded with their plans to establish a permanent barrier against potential aggression from the northwest.
• In August 1839, the British entered Kabul after a successful attack, and Shah Shuja was installed as the Amir of Afghanistan. However, Shah Shuja's rule was met with opposition from the Afghan people, and upon the British withdrawal, a rebellion broke out, resulting in the killing of the garrison commander in Kabul. The British were forced to sign a treaty in 1841, agreeing to evacuate Afghanistan and restore Dost Mohammed to power.
• However, the British plan failed, and in September 1842, they reoccupied Kabul through a new expedition. This time, they reached a settlement with Dost Mohammed, recognizing him as the independent ruler of Afghanistan and evacuating from Kabul. The First Anglo-Afghan War had severe consequences, costing India a significant amount of money and manpower.
• Following the disastrous First Afghan War, John Lawrence, who served as Viceroy of India from 1864 to 1869, implemented a policy of "masterly inactivity." This policy was a reaction to the failures of the previous war and was based on practical common sense and an understanding of the frontier problem and the Afghan desire for independence. Lawrence's policy involved refraining from interference, even during the war of succession that followed Dost Mohammed's death in 1863.
• The policy of masterly inactivity aimed to avoid entanglement in costly and unsuccessful military ventures and instead focused on maintaining a stable and peaceful relationship with Afghanistan. It recognized the importance of respecting Afghan independence and allowed for a more cautious and restrained approach in dealing with the region.

View

• The view presented by R.B. Smith, the biographer of Sir John Lawrence, suggests that Lawrence's foreign policy was characterized by self-reliance, self-restraint, and a focus on defense rather than defiance. Lawrence believed in maintaining a position of strength and readiness, patiently observing and waiting for the right moment to take action if necessary.
• Lawrence's policy emphasized the preservation of peace at the frontier and the avoidance of interference in internal conflicts, as long as those conflicts did not involve foreign intervention. He sought to cultivate friendly relations with Sher Ali, who had established himself as the ruler of Afghanistan, indicating a willingness to engage in diplomacy and build alliances rather than resorting to aggressive actions.
• Overall, Lawrence's foreign policy aimed to maintain stability and security while avoiding unnecessary conflicts. It reflected a pragmatic and cautious approach, prioritizing the protection of British interests and the avoidance of costly military ventures.

Lytton and the Policy of Proud Reserve

• Lord Lytton, who served as the Viceroy of India from 1876 to 1880, introduced a foreign policy known as the "policy of proud reserve." This policy aimed to establish clear and defined scientific frontiers for British India and protect British spheres of influence. Lytton believed that the relationship with Afghanistan needed to be clarified and made more explicit.
• Under Lytton's policy, the British government sought to assert its dominance and control over its territories and influence neighboring regions. This approach was a departure from the previous policy of masterly inactivity, which emphasized non-interference and a cautious approach to foreign affairs. Lytton's policy reflected a more assertive and proactive stance, aimed at securing British interests and maintaining stability in the region.
• By advocating for scientific frontiers and clearly defining spheres of influence, Lytton aimed to establish a strong and secure position for British India. He believed that maintaining clear boundaries and asserting British power would contribute to stability and prevent conflicts with neighboring states.
• However, Lytton's policy of proud reserve faced criticism and was met with mixed results. It led to strained relations with Afghanistan and culminated in the Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-1880). The policy also faced challenges in other parts of the Indian subcontinent, particularly during the Great Famine of 1876-1878, where the British response was criticized for being inadequate.
• Overall, Lytton's policy of proud reserve represented a shift towards a more proactive and assertive foreign policy approach, aimed at securing British interests and maintaining stability in the region.

Second Anglo-Afghan War (1870-80)

• During Lord Lytton's tenure as Viceroy of India, tensions between the British and Afghanistan escalated, leading to the Second Anglo-Afghan War. The conflict arose due to a series of diplomatic misunderstandings and power struggles in the region.
• Sher Ali Khan, the Amir of Afghanistan, sought to maintain a delicate balance between the British and Russian influences in the region. However, his refusal to accept a British envoy in Kabul while maintaining a similar concession with the Russians displeased Lord Lytton.
• The situation further deteriorated when Sher Ali rejected the terms of a proposed treaty offered by the British. In response, the British decided to take military action against Afghanistan. Sher Ali's forces were unable to resist the British invasion, and he eventually fled the country.
• The Treaty of Gandamak was then signed in May 1879 with Sher Ali's son, Yakub Khan, who became the new Amir. Under the treaty, Afghanistan ceded territory and accepted British control over its foreign affairs. The British also gained the right to maintain a resident envoy in Kabul.
• However, the treaty was short-lived, as the British faced significant opposition and resistance from Afghan tribes. The situation escalated into a full-scale rebellion known as the Second Anglo-Afghan War. The British forces faced numerous challenges and suffered heavy casualties during the war.
• Ultimately, the conflict ended with the withdrawal of British forces from Afghanistan in 1881, and a more hands-off approach was adopted in dealing with Afghan affairs. The war highlighted the difficulties of maintaining control in Afghanistan and the limitations of British imperial power in the region.

Treaty of Gandamak (May 1879)

• The Treaty of Gandamak, signed in May 1879, was the outcome of the Second Anglo-Afghan War. The treaty included provisions such as the Amir conducting his foreign policy under the advice of the Government of India, the stationing of a permanent British resident in Kabul, and the provision of support and an annual subsidy from the Government of India to the Amir in the face of foreign aggression.
• However, the treaty did not lead to a stable situation. Yakub Khan, who became the Amir after his father Sher Ali's flight, faced opposition from various factions and ultimately abdicated due to popular pressure. This resulted in the British having to recapture Kabul and Kandahar.
• After the British reoccupation of Kabul and Kandahar, Abdur Rahman Khan was installed as the new Amir of Afghanistan. Lord Lytton, the Viceroy of India, had initially planned to dismember Afghanistan, but this plan was abandoned under Lord Ripon's administration. Instead, the policy of keeping Afghanistan as a buffer state between British India and Russia was adopted.
• In the aftermath of World War I and the Russian Revolution in 1917, Afghanistan demanded full independence. Habibullah Khan, who succeeded Abdur Rahman Khan in 1901, was assassinated in 1919, and his son Amanullah Khan declared open war on the British. Peace was eventually established in 1921, and Afghanistan regained full independence in foreign affairs.
• This period marked a significant shift in Afghanistan's relationship with foreign powers and its quest for independence.