Civil Disobedience Movement

Salt was chosen as the central theme of the Civil Disobedience Movement for several compelling reasons:

1. Universal Grievance: Salt was a commodity essential to every Indian household, regardless of social or economic status. By targeting the salt tax, Gandhi aimed to address a grievance that directly impacted the masses, particularly the rural poor.
2. Symbolism of Oppression: The salt tax was perceived as one of the most oppressive policies of British rule. Taxing an essential item like salt affected the poorest sections of society disproportionately. By challenging this tax, Gandhi symbolically challenged the entire British colonial system.
3. Psychological Significance: Salt, like khadi (homespun cloth), represented self-reliance and self-sufficiency. By encouraging people to produce their own salt, Gandhi empowered them to assert their independence from British economic control.
4. Minimal Income Source for the Poor: For many rural communities, selling salt provided a small but vital source of income. By encouraging salt production and distribution, Gandhi sought to provide economic relief to the impoverished rural population.
5. Symbol of Unity: The Salt Satyagraha offered a unifying cause for Indians across regions, castes, and religions. It transcended divisive social and cultural barriers, rallying people around a common goal of liberation from British rule.

The Dandi March, culminating in the violation of the salt law at Dandi beach, became a defining moment in India's struggle for independence. It galvanized public support, inspired acts of civil disobedience across the country, and brought international attention to the Indian freedom movement.

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The defiance of the salt laws ignited a wave of civil disobedience across India following Gandhi's symbolic act at Dandi:

1. Nehru's Arrest: Jawaharlal Nehru's arrest in April 1930 for defying the salt law sparked massive demonstrations in major cities like Madras, Calcutta, and Karachi. Nehru's arrest further fueled public outrage and mobilized support for the civil disobedience movement.
2. Gandhi's Leadership: Gandhi's arrest on May 4, 1930, while he was planning to lead a raid on the Dharasana Salt Works, triggered widespread protests across the country. The announcement of Gandhi's arrest prompted massive demonstrations in Bombay, Delhi, Calcutta, and Sholapur, where the response was particularly intense.
3. CWC's Sanction: Following Gandhi's arrest, the Congress Working Committee (CWC) sanctioned various forms of civil disobedience as part of the movement's escalation strategy:
• Non-payment of revenue in ryotwari areas: Farmers in ryotwari regions were instructed to withhold payment of land revenue as a form of protest against British rule.
• No-chowkidara-tax campaign in zamindari areas: People in zamindari regions refused to pay the chowkidara tax, a levy imposed for the maintenance of watchmen.
• Violation of forest laws in the Central Provinces: Indigenous communities and forest dwellers in the Central Provinces protested against oppressive forest laws imposed by the British administration.

These coordinated acts of civil disobedience demonstrated the widespread discontent and resistance against British colonial rule and galvanized support for the broader independence movement. The momentum generated by these protests further intensified the struggle for freedom in India.

The Civil Disobedience Movement unfolded differently in various regions of India:

Tamil Nadu:

• C. Rajagopalachari organized a march from Thiruchirapalli to Vedaranniyam on the Tanjore coast to break the salt law, followed by picketing of foreign cloth shops.
• Despite efforts to maintain non-violence, there were outbreaks of violence, with police repression intensifying.
• Unemployed weavers attacked liquor shops, and peasants rioted due to falling prices.

Malabar:

• K. Kelappan organized salt marches in Malabar.
• P. Krishna Pillai defended the national flag during a police lathi-charge on Calicut beach.

Andhra Region:

• District salt marches were organized, and sibirams (military-style camps) were set up as headquarters for the Salt Satyagraha.
• Merchants contributed to Congress funds, but mass support was lacking compared to the non-cooperation movement.

Orissa:

• Under Gopalbandhu Chaudhuri, salt satyagraha was effective in coastal regions like Balasore, Cuttack, and Puri districts.

Assam:

• Civil disobedience failed to reach the heights of 1921-22 due to growing conflicts between Assamese and Bengalis, Hindus and Muslims.
• A successful student strike against the Cunningham Circular occurred in May 1930, but incitement to break forest laws faced resistance from Assam Congress leadership.

Bengal:

• Divided Bengal Congress factions, led by Subhas Bose and J.M. Sengupta, were involved in the Calcutta Corporation election, alienating rural masses.
• Communal riots occurred in Dacca and Kishoreganj, with limited Muslim participation in movements.
• Despite challenges, Bengal witnessed a large number of arrests and significant violence, with powerful movements around salt satyagraha and chaukidari tax in rural pockets.
• Surya Sen's Chittagong revolt group declared the establishment of a provisional government after raiding two armouries.

The Civil Disobedience Movement manifested in various regions across India:

Bihar:

• Champaran and Saran initiated salt satyagraha, but due to practical constraints, it was more symbolic.
• A significant nochaukidari tax agitation replaced salt satyagraha, leading to the decline of foreign cloth and liquor sales.

Chhotanagpur (now in Jharkhand):

• Bonga Majhi and Somra Majhi led a movement in Hazaribagh, emphasizing socio-religious reform along 'sanskritising' lines.
• Despite Gandhian influence, Santhals engaged in illegal liquor distillation under the banner of Gandhi.

Peshawar (North-West Frontier Province):

• Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan's educational and social reform work among Pathans politicized them.
• Mass demonstrations erupted in Peshawar following Congress leaders' arrest, prompting a reign of terror and martial law.

Sholapur (Maharashtra):

• Textile workers went on strike, burning liquor shops and symbols of government authority.
• Activists established a parallel government dislodged only by martial law.

Dharasana (Gujarat):

• Sarojini Naidu, Imam Sahib, and Manilal led a raid on Dharasana Salt Works, met with a brutal lathicharge.
• This form of salt satyagraha spread to various regions, including Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra, and Orissa.

Gujarat:

• Areas like Anand, Bardoli, and Jambusar witnessed determined no-tax movements and evasion of police repression by crossing borders into princely states.

Maharashtra, Karnataka, Central Provinces:

• Defiance of forest laws and public sale of illegally acquired forest produce occurred.

United Provinces:

• A no-revenue campaign and no-rent campaign targeted zamindars, gaining momentum in Agra and Rai Bareilly.

Manipur and Nagaland:

• Rani Gaidinliu and Haipou Jadonang led a revolt against British rule, urging people to refuse taxes and work for the British.
• Jadonang was hanged for treason, while Gaidinliu was later captured and sentenced to life imprisonment, eventually released by the Interim Government of India in 1946.

The Civil Disobedience Movement utilized various forms of mobilization to engage the masses:

Prabhat Pheries: Early morning processions to rally support and spread awareness. Vanar Senas: Volunteer groups organized for various tasks, including picketing and protest. Manjari Senas: Similar to Vanar Senas, these were groups of volunteers mobilized for specific actions. Secret Patrikas: Underground publications used to disseminate information and instructions. Magic Lantern Shows: Visual presentations used to educate and inspire the masses.

The impact of the agitation was significant:

1. Reduction in Imports: Imports of foreign cloth and other items decreased.
2. Loss of Government Revenue: The government suffered financially due to reduced income from liquor, excise, and land revenue.
3. Boycott of Elections: Elections to the Legislative Assembly were largely boycotted.

Mass participation was widespread across various segments of society:

Women: Encouraged by Gandhi, women played a leading role in picketing outside liquor shops, opium dens, and shops selling foreign cloth, marking their entry into the public sphere. Students and Youth: Actively participated in boycotting foreign cloth and liquor. Muslims: Though participation varied, areas like NWFP saw significant involvement. Middle-class Muslims participated notably in several regions. Merchants and Petty Traders: Enthusiastically supported the movement, especially in Tamil Nadu and Punjab. Tribals: Actively participated in regions like Central Provinces, Maharashtra, and Karnataka. Workers: Engaged in Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, Sholapur, among other areas. Peasants: Active participation observed in United Provinces, Bihar, and Gujarat.

The government's response to the Civil Disobedience Movement was marked by ambivalence and attempts at finding a resolution:

Ambivalence: The government faced a dilemma, torn between the options of applying force and risking accusations of repression, or taking little action and facing accusations of weakness. Gandhi's arrest, for example, followed much vacillation.

Repression: Once repression began, ordinances were used to ban civil liberties, including press censorship. Provincial governments were empowered to outlaw civil disobedience organizations. Lathi charges and firing on unarmed crowds resulted in casualties and arrests of many satyagrahis, including Gandhi and other Congress leaders.

Simon Commission Report: The publication of the Simon Commission Report, which lacked any mention of dominion status and was seen as regressive, further fueled discontent, even among moderate political circles.

Peace Initiatives: In July 1930, Lord Irwin proposed a round table conference and reiterated the goal of dominion status. He also allowed Tej Bahadur Sapru and M.R. Jayakar to explore the possibility of peace between the Congress and the government.

Discussion with Nehrus: In August 1930, Motilal and Jawaharlal Nehru met Gandhi in Yeravada Jail to discuss a settlement. The demands put forward included the right of secession from Britain, establishment of a complete national government with control over defense and finance, and an independent tribunal to settle Britain's financial claims. However, talks broke down at this stage.

The Gandhi-Irwin Pact, signed on February 14, 1931, marked a significant development in the Indian independence movement. Here's a breakdown of the key points agreed upon:

Agreements by the British Indian Government (represented by Lord Irwin):

1. Immediate release of all political prisoners not convicted of violence.
2. Remission of all fines not yet collected.
3. Return of all lands not yet sold to third parties.
4. Lenient treatment to government servants who had resigned.
5. Right to make salt in coastal villages for personal consumption (not for sale).
6. Right to peaceful and non-aggressive picketing.
7. Withdrawal of emergency ordinances.

Rejections by the British Indian Government:

1. Public inquiry into police excesses.
2. Commutation of Bhagat Singh and his comrades’ death sentence to life imprisonment.

Agreements by Gandhi and the Indian National Congress:

1. Suspension of the civil disobedience movement.
2. Participation in the next Round Table Conference to discuss the constitutional question, focusing on federation, Indian responsibility, and reservations and safeguards in India's interests (covering areas such as defense, external affairs, position of minorities, financial credit of India, and discharge of other obligations).

The pact placed the Congress on an equal footing with the British government, marking a significant milestone in the struggle for Indian independence.