Sources:
- More than 10,000 inscriptions engraved on copper and stone
- Literary sources, as Tamil literature flourished during this period
Political History:
Cholas remained subordinates to Pallavas after the Sangam Age
Re-emergence of Cholas began with Vijayalaya (850-871 CE)
Parantaka I (907-955) broadened the base of Chola governance
Parantaka I suffered a defeat at the hands of the Rashtrakutas
Rajaraja I (985-1014 A.D.)
Rajaraja I:
- Engaged in naval expeditions and conquered the West Coast, Sri Lanka, and Maldives
- Direct control of Chola authority over northern and eastern Sri Lanka
- Defeated Cheras in the battle of Kandanur salai
- Successful expedition against Western and Eastern Chalukyas
- Completed the construction of Rajarajeswara temple
- Abdicated his throne for his son Rajendra Chola I
Rajendra I:
- Conducted a successful expedition to northern India
- Defeated Mahipala I of Bengal
- Founded the city of Gangaikondacholapuram and constructed the famous Rajesvaram temple
- Naval expedition to Kadaram or Sri Vijaya (Indonesia)
- Annexed total Sri Lanka
- Established educational institutes in his empire
- After his death, his three successors were killed
- Kulathunga Chola I, grandson of Rajendra Chola, preserved the legacy of Imperial Cholas
Kulathunga Chola I:
- Abolished many taxes
- He aboilished many taxes and got the title sungam tavirtta.
- He sent trade embassys to China
- He united the Vengi kingdom with the Chola Empire.
- He was contemporary to Ramanujacharya.
- Rajendra III was the last Chola king who was defeated by Jatavarman Sundarapandya II
- On the ruins of Chola empire Pandya and Hoysala kingdom came into existence.Turkish conquest of India
King and Administration in Chola Empire:
The Chola Empire was ruled by an emperor or king who had all the authority in his hands. The king often went on tours to keep in touch with the administration. Brahmins were appointed as spiritual preceptors or rajagurus, and huge estates of land were granted to them as brahmadeyams and caturvedimangalams. The provinces were divided into mandalams, valanadus, and nadus, and each nadu had a number of autonomous villages. The military administration was managed by a large army consisting of infantry, cavalry, and elephants. The revenue administration was managed through extensive land surveys and revenue settlements. Local administration was managed by two types of villages, and various taxes and dues were levied on goods and ceremonies.
Religion in Chola Empire:
The Chola rulers were ardent Saivites, and Shiva was the preeminent god for them. Saiva Siddhanta was a highly evolved philosophical system founded during this period. However, there were serious clashes between Shaivites and Vaishnavites. Kulathunga Chola was an ardent Shaivite who persecuted Vaishnavites, leading Bhakti saint Ramnujacharya to leave Srirangam and settle in Melkote, Karnataka.
Society in Chola Empire:
During the Chola period, Aryanisation was consolidated, and the Sanskritisation process started. The caste system was widely prevalent, and Chola society witnessed a division of caste into "Idangai" and "Vadangai." The practice of sati became sacred, and a new social evil called Devadasi system came into practice.
Literature in Chola Empire:
Tamil and Sanskrit literature flourished during the Chola period, and Tamil literature witnessed a golden age. Some notable Tamil literary works include Kamban Ramayan by Kamban, Periyapuranam or Tiruttondarpuranam by Sekkilar, Kalladam by Kalladanar, and Nalavenba by Pugalendi. Kesava swami composed the Sanskrit work nannaranava samkshevam.
Architecture in Chola Empire:
Chola art saw the culmination of Dravida temple art, resulting in the construction of the most sophisticated buildings. Cholas followed the architectural style of the Pallavas, adding greater refinement and mostly involving the construction of temples in the Dravidian style. Stone was used instead of bricks for its greater durability. The temples had intricate frescos, including birds, dancing figurines, and other pictorial stories from Puranas. Some temples have portraits of the Kings and queens themselves. The temples were covered with exquisite well-composed sculptures and frescoes. The presence of water tanks was a unique feature of Chola architecture. Examples include Brihadeswara and Vijayalaya temples, and the most memorable figures built during the Chola period were the Ganas. Yazhi, a recurring pattern of the sculpted mythical animals, was also a unique feature, and the Dvarpalas at the entrance of the mandap became a unique feature.
Brihadeswara Temple:
- The Grand Temple of Tanjavur, known as Rajarajisvaram and Brihadishvarar Temple, stands as an outstanding example of Chola architecture, painting, sculpture and iconography.
- Built by RajaRaja Chola
- It has shadowless vimana
- The sanctum with a vimana of 190 feet is capped with a stone weighing 80 tons
- The figures of Lakshmi, Vishnu, Ardhanarisvara and Bikshadana, a mendicant form of Siva, on the outer walls of the sanctum are some unique features.
- The fresco paintings and the miniature sculptures of the scenes from puranas and epics in the temple walls reveal the religious ideology of the Chola rulers.
- In commemoration of his victory in North India, Rajendra I built GangaikondChozhapuram on the model of Brihadisvarar temple.
Darasuram Temple: - Darasuram Temple, built by Rajaraja II (1146–1172), is another testimony of Chola architecture.
Chola Bronze Sculptures:
- The cire-perdu or ‘lost-wax’ process for casting was learned as long ago as the Indus Valley Culture.
- Discovery of bronze alloy made by mixing copper, zinc, and tin
- South India developed bronze casting and making of traditional icons during medieval period
- Chola bronzes highly sought-after by art lovers worldwide
- Shiva Nataraja figure evolved and developed during Chola Period, with many variations since
- Thanjavur region in Tamil Nadu evolved a wide range of Shiva iconography, including a remarkable kalyanasundara murti from the 9th century depicting the marriage ceremony
- In Ardhanarisvara Murti, union of Shiva and Parvati represented in a single image
- Beautiful independent figurines of Parvati also modeled, standing in graceful tribhanga posture.
