Indian Philosophy, often referred to as Darshanas in Sanskrit, encompasses a diverse range of philosophical traditions. These philosophical systems include Hindu philosophy, Buddhist philosophy, Jain philosophy, and Orthodox Schools of Indian Philosophy, which trace their roots to the ancient Vedas, the foundational sacred texts of Hinduism.
The Astika Philosophical Traditions
The term "Astika" refers to the orthodox schools of Indian philosophy that accept the authority of the Vedas. These schools uphold the Vedic scriptures as their primary source of knowledge and spiritual guidance.
1. Samkhya:
Origins: Samkhya is the oldest among the orthodox schools and dates back to ancient India.
Philosophical Foundation: Samkhya postulates that reality emanates from two fundamental principles: purusha (self or soul or mind) and Prakriti (matter, creative agency, energy). It is a dualist philosophy, emphasizing the distinction between the self and matter.
Liberation: Liberation is achieved through the realization of the difference between the soul and the dispositions of matter (steadiness, activity, and dullness).
2. Yoga:
Roots: The Yoga school, as articulated by Patanjali in his 2nd Century B.C. Yoga Sutras are closely aligned with Samkhya philosophy.
Theistic Aspect: Unlike Samkhya, Yoga incorporates a theistic element by introducing a divine entity into its metaphysical framework. This divine entity complements Samkhya's twenty-five elements of reality.
Path to Liberation: Yoga Sutras outline an eightfold path (ashtanga) akin to Buddhism's Noble Eightfold Path. Its goal is to quiet the mind and attain Kaivalya, meaning solitariness or detachment.
3. Nyaya:
Founder: Aksapada Gautama authored the Nyaya Sutras in the 2nd Century B.C.
Logical Methodology: Nyaya relies on a logical system that significantly influenced other Indian schools, much like Aristotelian logic influenced Western philosophy. It asserts that obtaining valid knowledge through perception, inference, comparison, and testimony is the key to liberation.
Criteria for Valid Knowledge: Nyaya developed rigorous criteria to determine the validity or invalidity of knowledge, akin to the analytical philosophy of the West.
4. Vaisheshika:
Establishment: Founded by Kanada in the 6th Century B.C., Vaisheshika is characterized by its atomistic and pluralistic worldview.
Atomic Universe: The philosophy posits that all physical objects in the universe are composed of a finite number of atoms. Brahman is considered the fundamental force that imparts consciousness to these atoms.
Merging with Nyaya: Due to their closely related metaphysical theories, Vaisheshika and Nyaya eventually merged. However, Vaisheshika accepted only perception and inference as valid sources of knowledge.
5. Purva Mimamsa:
Objective: The primary focus of the Purva Mimamsa school is to interpret and establish the authority of the Vedas.
Unquestionable Faith: Adherents of Purva Mimamsa hold unwavering faith in the Vedas and advocate the performance of Vedic fire-sacrifices as a means to sustain the universe's activities.
Shift in Views: Over time, the school evolved to include teachings about Brahman and freedom, allowing for the soul's liberation through enlightened actions.
6. Vedanta:
Emphasis on Upanishads: Vedanta, or Uttara Mimamsa, shifts its focus from the Brahmanas (ritual and sacrifice instructions) to the Upanishads (mystical and spiritual contemplations within the Vedas).
Spiritual Connectivity: Vedanta prioritizes meditation, self-discipline, and spiritual connection over ritualistic practices.
Sub-schools: Due to the cryptic and poetic nature of Vedanta sutras, the school split into six sub-schools. The best-known among them is Advaita, which asserts the oneness of the soul and Brahman. Other sub-schools offer various interpretations, including Vishishtadvaita, Dvaita, Dvaitadvaita, Shuddhadvaita, and Acintya Bheda Abheda, each blending monism and dualism in its unique way.
These orthodox schools of Indian philosophy provide profound insights into the diverse philosophical traditions that have shaped India's intellectual heritage. While each school offers distinct perspectives and methodologies, they all share a common goal: the enhancement of human life through the pursuit of wisdom, knowledge, and spiritual realization.
Ajivika School of Philosophy
In the rich tapestry of ancient Indian philosophy, the Ajivika school stands out as a fascinating and enigmatic tradition. Originating in the 5th century BCE, alongside contemporaneous philosophies like Jainism and Buddhism, the Ajivika offered a unique perspective on existence, fate, and cosmic principles. Founded by Goshala Maskariputra, an intriguing figure closely associated with Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, the Ajivika school emerged as a shramana movement that challenged the dominant Vedic religion and engaged in intellectual rivalry with other major philosophical schools.
- The Doctrine of Niyati (Fate)
At the heart of Ajivika philosophy lies the doctrine of Niyati, often translated as "Fate" or "Absolute Determinism." This doctrine asserts that there is no room for free will in the grand scheme of the universe. According to Ajivika thought, everything that has happened, is happening, and will happen is entirely preordained and governed by cosmic principles.
- Metaphysical Atomism
Another significant aspect of Ajivika philosophy was its theory of atoms, which had a lasting impact on Indian philosophical thought. Ajivika posited that everything in the physical universe could be reduced to a finite number of atoms. These atoms, in their view, were not just physical entities but also carriers of consciousness. Brahman, the cosmic force, was regarded as the fundamental power that bestowed consciousness upon these atoms.
- Asceticism and Fearless Austerities
Like their Jain counterparts, Ajivika monks embraced a life of extreme asceticism. Their commitment to spiritual pursuits led them to practice severe austerities that often left observers astounded. From lying on beds of nails to walking through fire, enduring extreme weather conditions, and even spending time in large earthen pots as a form of penance, Ajivika were known for their unwavering dedication to their beliefs.
- Open to All
One of the remarkable features of the Ajivika tradition was its inclusivity. Unlike some contemporary philosophical schools that imposed strict caste-based restrictions, the Ajivika welcomed individuals from all walks of life. This openness and accessibility contributed to the wide appeal and influence of the school.
- Legacy in Literature and Thought
The reputation of the Ajivika and their fearsome penance practices spread far and wide, finding mention in later Chinese and Japanese literature. Their enduring legacy endures as a testament to the diversity and complexity of ancient Indian philosophical thought.
The Ajivika school of philosophy, with its doctrine of Niyati, metaphysical atomism, and rigorous ascetic practices, remains a captivating chapter in the history of Indian philosophy. While their doctrines and practices may be considered unconventional, the enduring influence of the Ajivika school underscores the richness and diversity of India's philosophical heritage.
Charvaka School of Philosophy
The Charvaka School, also known as Lokayata Philosophy, stands as a remarkable and unconventional chapter in Indian philosophy. This philosophical tradition, characterized by its materialistic worldview and skepticism of sacred scriptures and spiritual notions, provides a unique perspective on existence, ethics, and the pursuit of happiness.
- Origins and Foundations
The foundations of the Charvaka School can be traced back to ancient Indian thought, with Brihaspati often credited as one of its earliest proponents. This school is believed to have evolved concurrently with the Vedas and finds mention in texts like the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.The Charvaka School earned its moniker "Lokayata'' because of its resonance with the beliefs and aspirations of the common people.
- Materialism and Rejection of the Supernatural
At the heart of Charvaka philosophy lies an unapologetic materialism. The Charvakas boldly rejected notions that were central to many other Indian philosophical schools, including the belief in an afterlife, the concept of karma, the pursuit of liberation (moksha), and the authority of the sacred Vedas. Moreover, they challenged the prevailing notion of the immortality of the self (atman).
- Human-Centric Philosophy
Central to Charvaka thought was the idea that the universe revolved around humanity. They maintained that any concerns beyond the human realm should be disregarded. Their philosophy emphasized the pursuit of happiness and sensual pleasures as fundamental to a fulfilling life. They criticized the Brahmanas for conducting rituals primarily to receive offerings (Dakshina) from devotees, asserting that these rituals were fabricated and served no true purpose.
- Elements of the Universe
In terms of metaphysics, the Charvakas posited a simplified view of the cosmos. They recognized four fundamental elements—fire, earth, water, and air—as the building blocks of the universe. Notably, they did not consider ether as one of the essential elements, as it could not be directly perceived through the senses.
- Embracing the Present
The Charvakas held a pragmatic and straightforward perspective on life and death. They firmly believed that this life was the only existence, and death represented its final culmination. Consequently, they advocated for the pursuit of pleasure and the maximization of worldly joys.
The Charvaka School of Philosophy, offers a unique and contrarian viewpoint in the realm of Indian philosophy. Rejecting supernatural beliefs, sacred scriptures, and otherworldly pursuits, the Charvakas grounded their philosophy in the tangible realities of human existence. In an era dominated by idealistic philosophies, the Charvakas championed a philosophy of the real world, emphasizing the importance of experiencing life to the fullest in the here and now.
