The Mughal Administration

• The Mughal era saw a significant centre-based government. The Mughal Emperor served as the head of state during the Mughal era. The Mughal system of administration was a combination of Indian and extra-Indian-s elements. In other words, it was a Perso-Arabic system in the Indian setting.

Mughal Administration

• The Mughal Emperors spearheaded numerous political and administrative reforms to enhance governance within their empire. They not only established a highly efficient administrative system but also ensured its effective functioning at both the Central and Provincial levels.

Central Administration

The Mughal Empire wielded authority over nearly every region of present-day India, making it the central administrative power to consolidate and wield comprehensive control.

The Emperor

• The Mughals, in line with ancient Indian traditions, upheld the importance of a powerful ruler. The notion of the divine origin of monarchy easily resonated with the Indian populace. Notably, the Mughals promoted the practice of Jharokha Darshan, where the emperor made public appearances at designated times. 
• The position of the emperor was hereditary, aligning with the traditions of ancient India.

Wazir

• The role of the Wazir held significant importance during the Mughal era, encompassing both civil and military powers. 

Key Officials in Central Administration

Here are descriptions of crucial officials in the central administration of the Mughal Empire:

Diwan-i-Kul

•  The Chief Diwan was entrusted with overseeing revenue and financial matters. His primary responsibility included supervising the imperial treasury and auditing all accounts.
• He personally scrutinized payments and transactions across various departments and maintained close communication with provincial Diwans, overseeing their operations.
•  All official documents related to finances required validation through his seal and signature.
•  The entire revenue collection and expenditure apparatus of the empire fell under his purview.

Mir Bakhshi

•  Mir Bakhshi played a crucial role in approving and confirming the appointments of all Mansabdars, along with their pay documents.
•  He personally supervised the branding of horses (dagh) and checked the muster-roll (chehra) of soldiers.
• Salary amounts were certified based on his verification.
•  Only after this verification did the Diwan record the entry and present it to the king.
• He presented all matters related to the Military Department before the emperor. New entrants seeking service were introduced to the emperor by the Mir Bakhshi.
•  He collaborated directly with the Bakhshis and Wagainavis of the province. Travelling with the emperor on tours, outings, hunting expeditions, and other activities, his responsibility was to ensure that the Mansabdars were appropriately positioned in the court according to their rank.

Mir Saman

• The officer in charge of the royal kari held the title of Mir Saman. As the Chief Executive Officer, his responsibilities included the procurement and storage of various articles for the royal household.
• Another significant duty was overseeing the manufacturing of different articles, ranging from weapons of war to luxury items.

Sadr-us-Sudur

• The Sadr-us-Sudur served as the head of the Religious Department, with a primary responsibility to uphold Shariat Law.
• He played a role in distributing charitable gifts, including cash donations (wazifa) and land grants. Initially overseeing the selection of Qazis and Muftis as the head of the judicial division.
• Before Shah Jahan's reign, the posts of the Chief Qazi and Sadr-us-Sudur were combined, and the same individual held charge of both departments.
• However, under Aurangzeb, the roles of the Chief Qazi (Qazi-ul-Quzzat) and the Sadr-us-Sudur were separated.

Chief Qazi

• The Chief Qazi, known as Qazi-ul-Quzzat, headed the judiciary, responsible for applying Sharia Law in both civil and criminal cases.

Other Officials Under Central Administration

• Muhtasib (Censor of Public Morals)
• Diwan-i-Khalisa (Incharge of Crown Lands)
• Diwan-i-Watan (Incharge of Jagirs)
• Mushrif-i-Mumalik (Accountant-General)
• Mustauf-1-Mumalik (Auditor-General)
• Daroga-i-Dak Chauki (Postmaster-General)
• Mir-i-Arz (Incharge of Petitions)
• Mir-i-Mal (Incharge of Privy Purse)
• Mir-i-Tozak (Incharge of Ceremonies)
• Mir Bahri (Incharge of Ships and Boats)
• Mir-i-Manzil (Incharge of Quarters)
• Mir Atish or Daroga-i-Topkhana (Head of Artillery)

Provincial Administration

• In AD 1580, Akbar divided the empire into twelve Subas. Each Suba was further divided into a number of sarkars, which were then split into Mahals and Parganas.
• During Shah Jahan's reign, another administrative unit, Chakla, came into existence. It was a cluster of a number of Parganas.

Provincial Governor

• The Governor of a Suba (Subadar) was directly appointed by the emperor, typically serving a tenure of around three years. His primary responsibilities included overseeing the welfare of the people and the army, as well as maintaining general law and order in the Suba.

Diwan

• The provincial Diwan supervised revenue collection in the Suba and maintained accounts of all expenditures, including salaries of officials and subordinates. He tracked expenses incurred by Suba's officials and subordinates in the form of salary.

Bakhshi

• Chosen by the imperial court based on Mir Bakhshi's advice, the Bakhshi carried out all military duties in the Suba, mirroring his central equivalent. He was responsible for checking and inspecting the soldiers and horses kept in good condition by the Mansabdars in the Suba. To facilitate his work, he stationed agents in Parganas and various important offices.

Some other Officials Under Provincial Administration

Local Administration

• At the local level in the Mughal Empire, the administration was structured into Sarkar, Pargana, and Mauza (village) levels.

Sarkars

Two crucial officials at the Sarkar level were the Faujdar and the Amalguzar.

• Faujdar: Serving as the executive head of the Sarkar, the Faujdar's jurisdiction was tailored to the region's needs. His primary responsibility was to ensure the safety of life and property for the residents in his jurisdiction. Safeguarding traders' safe passage within the region and overseeing recalcitrant Zamindars were also part of his duties.
• Amalguzar: The key revenue collector, known as the Amil or Amalguzar, was responsible for assessing and supervising revenue collection through subordinate officials. He submitted daily receipts and expenditure reports to the provincial Diwan.
• Thanedar: The Thana served as a location where the army was stationed to maintain law and order. Thanedars were tasked with arranging provisions for the army, particularly in disturbed areas and around cities. The head of a Thana was designated as Thanedar and generally placed under the Faujdar of the area.

Pargana Administration

• The Parganas served as administrative units beneath the Sarkar. The Shiqgdar functioned as the Executive Officer of the Pargana and assisted the Amils in revenue collection. The Amil oversaw revenue collection at the Pargana level. Qanungos maintained all records related to land in their respective areas, including details on different crops within the Pargana.

Village

• At the lowest administrative level, the village had the Mugaddam as the village headman, while the Patwari managed the village revenue records.

Judicial Administration

• Mughal Emperors, valuing justice, established a separate justice department known as Mahakuma-e-Adalat to oversee the proper administration of justice within the empire. The legal framework was primarily based on the Quran.

Administration of Civil Justice

• As a Muslim state, the Mughal administration of civil justice adhered entirely to the principles of the Quran. Qazis (judges) applied Quranic precepts in delivering justice, considering past judgments and ordinances issued by different emperors. While the emperor held the final authority in both original and appellate jurisdiction, he could not disregard the sacred laws of the Quran in dispensing justice.

Administration of Criminal Justice

• Similar to civil justice, the administration of criminal justice was also rooted in the precepts of the Quran.
• Criminal courts were referred to as Diwan-I-Mazalim. Criminal cases were categorized into main heads, including crimes against God, offenses against the sovereign, and crimes against individuals. Huda or retaliation and Tazir (punishment inflicted by the ruler) were applied as punishments, with severity varying based on the nature of the offenses.
• During Aurangzeb's reign, a Muslim could not be convicted solely on the testimony of a non-Muslim, but the reverse did not hold true.

Military Administration

• Until Aurangzeb's reign, the Mughal rulers upheld a large and efficient army. The presence of rebellious tribes like Afghans, Rajputs, Uzbegs, Jats, and Marathas posed challenges, necessitating a powerful army to suppress their revolts.

The army comprised five main units:

• Cavalry, with two types of horsemen: Bargir soldiers, provided with horses, arms, and attire by the state.
• Infantry, organized into two units: Bandukch (Riflemen) Samshirbaz (Swordsmen)
• War Elephants, used for both combat and transport.
• Artillery, which reached its peak efficiency during Akbar's era. Funding for the army's artillery came entirely from the imperial treasury.
• Navy, although weaker compared to the Europeans, was introduced in 1595-96, showcasing the civil and military capabilities of the nobility. Twin ranks, Zat and Sawar, were allocated.

The Ahadis: Most Trusted Troops

• Mughal emperors employed individual troopers known as Ahadis, who received higher salaries and formed a highly trusted corps directly recruited by the emperors.
• Additionally, a corps of royal bodyguards (Walashahis) was maintained by the Mughal emperors, with footmen (Piyadgan) serving as a miscellaneous body of troops.

Mansabdari System

•  The foundation of the Mughal army rested on the Mansabdari system, with its roots traceable to Genghis Khan. The term "Mansab" refers to a government officer who received a salary or Jagir based on his Mansab from the imperial treasury.
• Recruitment Techniques  All officers responsible for recruiting on behalf of the empire operated under the emperor's jurisdiction. The emperor wielded the authority to grant Mansabs to individuals of his choosing, along with the power to promote, demote, or dismiss them.
• Akbar demonstrated a keen eye for selecting capable individuals, often directly assigning them to high Mansabs. To keep Mansabdars on edge, Jagirs were frequently transferred.
• The promotion to higher ranks heavily depended on the Mansabdar's loyalty and dedication. Mansabdars were responsible for providing and maintaining soldiers, horsemen, horses, and elephants.
• Salary Structure  Mansabdars received their payment mostly in cash, enjoying substantial incomes. High-ranking officers awarded Jagirs did not hold them permanently; changes were periodically introduced.
•  The Mansabdar's salary was determined by a monthly scale system, with no hereditary aspects. During Jahangir's reign, the Du-aspa, Sih-aspa system was introduced, allowing a noble's Sawar rank to increase without affecting his Zat.
•  Mansabdars had the authority to collect revenue from their Jagirs through Zamindars who gathered dues from cultivators.
• Mansabs in any region of the empire could be summoned for tasks in both military and civic domains, significantly influencing the area's social, cultural, and economic aspects.
• However, the system fostered corruption and greed, often exploiting those of lower status.

Different Soldier Categories

In addition to the Mansabdars and their soldiers, various other categories of soldiers served the Mughal Empire, including

• Ahandi Soldiers: These were the emperor's personal soldiers, overseen by the Diwan and Bakhshi in terms of appointment, training, and discipline. While an ordinary horseman received a salary of only twelve to fifteen rupees per month, an Ahandi was paid up to five hundred rupees per month.
• Dakhili Soldiers: Recruited on behalf of the emperor, Dakhili soldiers were placed under the command of Mansabdars and constituted a part of the Mughal army.

Dual Ranks: Zat and Sawar

• Initially, a single number represented the rank, personal pay, and the size of the Mansabdar's contingent. For example, if a person held a Mansab of 500, they were required to maintain a contingent of 500 and received allowances for its upkeep. Additionally, they received personal pay according to a schedule.
• Over time, the rank of Mansabdars came to be denoted by two numbers: Zat and Sawar, likely around AD 1595-96.
• The first number (Zat) determined the Mansabdar's personal pay (Talab-Khassa) and their rank in the organization.
• The second number (Sawar) fixed the number of horses and horsemen to be maintained by the Mansabdar, determining the amount received for their contingent (Tabinan). 
• It had three scale gradations: Mansabdar (500 Zat and below), Amir (between 500-250 Zat), and Amir-i-Umda (2500 Zat and above).

Jagirdari System

• During Akbar's rule, the land was categorized into Khalisa and Jagir.

 Naqdi referred to Mansabdars who received monetary payments.

• Mashaut Jagirs were granted based on specific conditions, while Inam Jagirs were independent of rank and had no service obligations.
• Among these, Tankhwah Jagirs were transferable every 3 or 4 years, while Watan Jagirs were hereditary and non-transferable. The Jagirdar collected revenue through his own officials such as Karkun, Amin, Amil, and Potdar.
• Thus, the Mughal Jagir system resembled the Iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate. Like Iqta, assigning a Jagir to a Mansabdar did not confer hereditary rights on the Mansabdar.
•  In essence, Jagirdars (holders of Jagirs) owed their position to the Mughal Emperor, and there was no practical distinction between the state and the emperor during Mughal times.
• The Mughal Emperors protected their privileged position against hereditary claims to Jagirs by Jagirdars through the frequent transfer policy.

Revenue Administration

•  The revenue system was primarily based on the old Iqta system from the Delhi Sultanate.
• The principal source of revenue for the Mughal Empire was derived from land.

Methods of Land Revenue Assessment

Several methods of land revenue assessment were commonly used, including:

• Ghalla Bakshi or Bhaoli or Batai System: A simple crop-sharing method where the produce was arranged into heaps and divided into three shares known as Bhaoli and Batai.
• Kankut/Dambandi System: Kankut, derived from Kan (grain) and Kut (estimate or appraisal), involved fixing or determining the value of grain.
• Nasaq System: A rough assessment based on past revenue records, determining present revenue shares for peasants.

• Zabti System In Mughal India, the Zabti system emerged as a significant method of assessment, with its origins traced back to Sher Shah. During Akbar's reign, this system underwent multiple revisions.

• Dahsala System Building on the Zabti system, Todar Mal introduced fresh reforms collectively known as Ain-i-Dahsala, completed in AD 1580. This system categorized land into four types:
  • Polaj: Land cultivated annually.
  • Parauti: Land left fallow for a short period (1 or 2 years).
  • Chachar: Land left fallow for 3 to 4 years.
  • Banjar: Uncultivated for 5 years or more.
• Furthermore, according to Abul Fazl, Alu-Dahsala specified a 10-year cycle for each Pargana based on the category of cultivation and the prevailing prices.

Revenue Administration Officials

There were three distinct categories of officials involved in revenue administration:

• Officials and agents of Jagirdars.
• Permanent local officials, often hereditary, who were generally unaffected by the frequent transfers of Jagirdars.
• Imperial officials tasked with assisting and overseeing Jagirdars at the rural level. This group included various revenue officials.
• Karori: In AD 1574-75, Karori was responsible for both assessing and collecting revenue.
• Amins: Appointed in every mahal, Amins were tasked with the assessment of revenue.
• Qanungo: The local revenue official for the Pargana, usually belonging to one of the accountant castes. While it was a hereditary post, imperial approval was required for each new appointment. Initially compensated with 1% of the total revenue, Akbar later instituted salaries for Qanungos.
• Chaudhari: Similar to the Qanungo, the Chaudhari played a crucial role in revenue collection.
• Shiqqdar: Initially responsible for revenue collection and maintaining law and order during Sher Shah's reign, the Shiqqdar later became a subordinate official under the Karori during Akbar's later period.
• Muqaddam and Patwari: Village-level officials, with the Muqaddam serving as the village headman and allowed 2.5% of the total revenue collected for his services. The Patwari was responsible for maintaining records related to village land, individual cultivator holdings, types of crops grown, and details about fallow land.

Ijara System

• The Ijara system, also known as revenue farming, constituted another aspect of the revenue system during that era. In villages, when peasants lacked the resources for cultivation or faced calamities hindering cultivation, they would lease out their land through Ijara.
• It was expected that revenue officials or their relatives would refrain from participating in Ijara transactions, and revenue farmers were supposed to adhere to the stipulated land revenue without excessive extraction from the peasants. However, this ideal scenario was rarely realized in practice.
• The prevalence of Ijara appears to have been limited in the Zabti provinces, Gujarat, and the Mughat Dakhin. In Khalisa lands, this practice was infrequent, but in Jagir lands, it became a common feature. Jagirdars, who were revenue assignees, often leased out their assignments, sometimes sub-assigning portions to their subordinates or troopers.
• During the 18th century, the Ijara system evolved into a prevalent method of revenue assessment and collection. Mirasdars, designated hereditary landowners, were responsible for paying revenue to the state.

Economy During the Mughal Period

• India boasted a substantial class of affluent traders and merchants, with some ranking among the wealthiest in the world during medieval times. The Indian trading classes were numerous, well-organized, and highly professional, engaging in various forms of trade.

• Boat traffic on waterways and coastal trade along the seashore flourished during this era, facilitated by well-developed systems. Agents (Gumashtas) and commission agents (Dalals) played crucial roles in enabling the movement of trade across the region.

Major Trade Centers

• Bengal: Known for sugar, rice, muslin, and silk.
• Coast of Coromandel: Recognized for textile production.
• Gujarat: Famous for fine textiles, silks (Patola), and serving as the entry point for foreign goods.
• Burhanpur and Agra: Nodal points of trade in North India.
• Malabar: Renowned for pepper and spices.

Hundi System

• The Hundi system, a form of letter of credit payable after a specified period at a discount, played a vital role in facilitating the movement of goods. Hundis often included insurance, charged based on factors like the value of goods and destination. Sarrafs (Shrofs), who specialized in money exchange, were key players in handling Hundis and acted as private banks, contributing to the circulation of money during this period.

Mughal Paintings

• Mughals made distinctive contributions to painting, introducing new themes depicting court life, battle scenes, and chases. European painting, brought to the Mughal court by Portuguese priests during Akbar's reign, influenced many new features. Daswant and Basawan were renowned painters during Akbar's era. Under Jahangir's rule, portrait painting and depictions of animals saw significant progress, with Mansur emerging as a prominent figure in this field.

Literature During the Mughal Period

• Mughal rulers were prominent patrons of literature and laureates. This period witnessed the creation of significant biographies, memoirs, and historical texts.

Some of the important literary works were as follows:

• Baburnama: An autobiographical work written by Babur in Chagatai Turkish. It provides detailed insights into India's political, natural, economic, and environmental conditions during his time, including information about various crops cultivated in India.
• Humayunama: Authored by Gulbadan Begum, this work comprises the life history of Babur in its first part and details about Humayun's rule in the second part.
• Akbarnama: Written by Abul Fazl and divided into three volumes, this official chronicle extensively covers Akbar's reign. The last volume, Ain-i-Akbari, is also part of this compilation.
• Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri: Jahangir's autobiography, serving as a primary source of information about his era.
• Padshahnama: The first official document of Jahangir, offering detailed information about his rule.
• Tarikh-i-Shahjahani: Authored by Sadik Khan, this work provides comprehensive details about Shah Jahan's rule.
• Futuhat-i-Alamgiri: Composed by Isardas Nagar, this book delves into the relationship between Aurangzeb and the Rajputs.

Music in the Mughal Period

• According to Ain-i-Akbari, Abul Fazl mentions the presence of 36 high-grade musicians in Akbar's Mughal court.
• Tansen, considered one of the eight Maharatnas of Akbar's court, is hailed as the greatest musician in Indian history, credited with inventing many ragas.
• Mughal emperors were patrons of music, leading to its growth during their reigns.
• At Akbar's court, Hind and Islamic music merged, creating a unique musical culture.
• Music was an integral part of Mughal society, reflecting its rich cultural heritage during this period.

Mughal Architecture

Prelims Facts

• What was 'district' known as during the Mughal administration?

- Sarkar (UKPSC (Pre) 2004)

• The term 'Chakla' has been used in medieval Indian History sources, this was..........

- Territorial unit between Suba and Pargana, but not identical to Sarkar (UPPSC (Pre) 2018)

• The head of the military department under the recognised central machinery of administration during Akbar's reign was...........

- Mir Baksiti (UPPSC (Pre) 2004, MPPSC (Pre) 2011

• In Mughal administration, what does the term 'Muhtasib' meant? an officer in charge of public morals

- [BPSC (Pre) 2005]

• The Mansabdari system that Akbar implemented was borrowed from the system prevalent in which country?

- Mangolir (IAS (Pre) 1994)

• The 'D4-aspa' and 'Seh-aspa' rank was first introduced during the reign of ......

- Jahangir [APSC (Pre) 2013]

• Which Mughal emperor had the highest number of Hindu Generals in the Mughal army?

- Aurangzeb [UPPSC (Pre) 2000)

• Mansabdari System was the official nobility of the state started by which Mughal emperor?

- Akbar (UPPSC (Pre) 2019)

• What was the main source of income of the state in Mughal India?

- Land Revenue [UPPSC (Pre) 1995]

• Who introduced the confiscation system of property?

- Sher Shah Suri [BPSC (Pre) 1994]

• What was the name of the tax system which is also known as Settlement System?

- Dahsala (UPPSC (Pre) 2013

• Which method was the prevailing basis of land revenue collection in the Deccan during the reign of Akbar 7

- Number of plough (UPPSC (Pre) 2017)

• What was the name of the contract to be awarded for the collection of land rent?

- Ijarah (MPPSC (Pre) 2009)

• During the Mughal rule, the Copper Coin was Known by which ame?

- Dam (UPPSC (Fre) 2008)

• After the defeat of Delhi Sultanate. which ruler first introduced gold currency?

- Humayun [UPPSC (Pre) 2014

• Under which Mughal emperor's regime, the 'Jizyah was imposed again?

- Aurangzeb (UPPSC (Pre) 2002

• In which field did the Todarmal earned fame ?

- Land Revenue (UPPSC (Pre 1992

Self Check

1. With reference in Medieval Indie, which one of the following is the correct sequence in ascending order in terns of size?

(a) Pangana-Sankar Sode

(b) Sarkar- Pargana-Suba

(c) Suba-Sarker-Pangana

(d) Pargana-Suba-Sarkar

2. The term Chakle" has been used in Medieval Indian History sources. This was

UPSC (Pres 2018

(a) identical to Pargana.

(b) identical to Sarkar.

(c territorial unit between Suba and Pargana, but not

identical to Sarkar.

(d) None of the above

3. Assertion (A) The Mughal Empire was originally a military state.

Reason (R) The vitality of the development of the Central Government System depended on its military power.

UPPSC (Pre) 2021

Codes

(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.

(c) A is true, but R is false.

(d) A is false, but R is true.

4. With reference to the Mansabdari system, which of the statement (s) is/are correct?

UPPSC (Pre) 2019

1. The Mansabdari system was the official nobility of the state, started by Akbar:
2. A Mansabdari was hereditary.

Select the correct answer by using the codes given below.

(a) Only 1

(b) Both 1 and 2

(c) Only 2

(d) Neither I nor 2

5. With reference to Mughal India, what is/are the difference/differences between Jagirdar and Zamindar?

IAS (Pre) 2019

1. Jagirdars were holders of land assignments in lieu of judicial and police duties, whereas Zamindars were holders of revenue rights without obligation to perform any duty other than revenue collection.
2. Land assignments to Jagirdars were hereditary and revenue rights of Zamindars were not hereditary.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below.

(a) Only 1

(b) Only 2

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

6. What is the difference between Jagirdar and Zamindar in the context of Mughal? IAS (Pre 2019

1. Jagirdars had the right to allot land in lieu of judicial and Police obligations, whereas Zamindars had revenue rights and were not obliged to fulfill any obligation other than revenue collection.
2. Land settlements made to Jagirdars were hereditary and the revenue rights of the Zamindars were not hereditary

Which of the above statements) is/are correct?

(a) Only I

(b) Only 2

(c) Both l and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

7. Assertion (A) Akbar like Sher Shah tried to regulate the circulation of state coins.

Reason (R) Similar to the currency system of Sher Shah, the major copper coin of Akbar's time was the Dam.

UPPSC (Pre) 2019

Codes

(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.

(c) A is true, but R is false.

(d) A is false, but R is true.

8. A famous policy of land revenue system

'Ain-i-Dahsala' method was formulated by whom during the Akbar period ?

RAS/RTS (Pre) 2010, JPSC (Pre) 2013

(a) Shah Nawaz Khan

 (b) Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana

(c) Todar Mal

(d) Mulla Do-Piyaza

9. Which one of the following statements about the Ijara system is not correct?

BPSC (Pre) 2019

(a) It was the system of agricultural revenue farming.

(b) It promoted the role of middlemen (brokers).

(c) Under this system, the land revenue would be fixed for the farmer.

(d) Ijaradar used to pay a certain amount to the state treasury.

10. Tappa's style of music was refined and developed in which of the following Mughal Emperor' Courts?

UPPSC (Pre) 2023

(a) Akbar

(b) Shahjahan

(c) Muhammad Shah

(d) Jahangir

Know Right Answer

1 (a)

2 (c)

3 (b)

• The Mughal era saw a significant centre-based government. The Mughal Emperor served as the head of state during the Mughal era. The Mughal system of administration was a combination of Indian and extra-Indian-s elements. In other words, it was a Perso-Arabic system in the Indian setting.

Mughal Administration

• The Mughal Emperors spearheaded numerous political and administrative reforms to enhance governance within their empire. They not only established a highly efficient administrative system but also ensured its effective functioning at both the Central and Provincial levels.

Central Administration

The Mughal Empire wielded authority over nearly every region of present-day India, making it the central administrative power to consolidate and wield comprehensive control.

The Emperor

• The Mughals, in line with ancient Indian traditions, upheld the importance of a powerful ruler. The notion of the divine origin of monarchy easily resonated with the Indian populace. Notably, the Mughals promoted the practice of Jharokha Darshan, where the emperor made public appearances at designated times. 
• The position of the emperor was hereditary, aligning with the traditions of ancient India.

Wazir

• The role of the Wazir held significant importance during the Mughal era, encompassing both civil and military powers. 

Key Officials in Central Administration

Here are descriptions of crucial officials in the central administration of the Mughal Empire:

Diwan-i-Kul

•  The Chief Diwan was entrusted with overseeing revenue and financial matters. His primary responsibility included supervising the imperial treasury and auditing all accounts.
• He personally scrutinized payments and transactions across various departments and maintained close communication with provincial Diwans, overseeing their operations.
•  All official documents related to finances required validation through his seal and signature.
•  The entire revenue collection and expenditure apparatus of the empire fell under his purview.

Mir Bakhshi

•  Mir Bakhshi played a crucial role in approving and confirming the appointments of all Mansabdars, along with their pay documents.
•  He personally supervised the branding of horses (dagh) and checked the muster-roll (chehra) of soldiers.
• Salary amounts were certified based on his verification.
•  Only after this verification did the Diwan record the entry and present it to the king.
• He presented all matters related to the Military Department before the emperor. New entrants seeking service were introduced to the emperor by the Mir Bakhshi.
•  He collaborated directly with the Bakhshis and Wagainavis of the province. Travelling with the emperor on tours, outings, hunting expeditions, and other activities, his responsibility was to ensure that the Mansabdars were appropriately positioned in the court according to their rank.

Mir Saman

• The officer in charge of the royal kari held the title of Mir Saman. As the Chief Executive Officer, his responsibilities included the procurement and storage of various articles for the royal household.
• Another significant duty was overseeing the manufacturing of different articles, ranging from weapons of war to luxury items.

Sadr-us-Sudur

• The Sadr-us-Sudur served as the head of the Religious Department, with a primary responsibility to uphold Shariat Law.
• He played a role in distributing charitable gifts, including cash donations (wazifa) and land grants. Initially overseeing the selection of Qazis and Muftis as the head of the judicial division.
• Before Shah Jahan's reign, the posts of the Chief Qazi and Sadr-us-Sudur were combined, and the same individual held charge of both departments.
• However, under Aurangzeb, the roles of the Chief Qazi (Qazi-ul-Quzzat) and the Sadr-us-Sudur were separated.

Chief Qazi

• The Chief Qazi, known as Qazi-ul-Quzzat, headed the judiciary, responsible for applying Sharia Law in both civil and criminal cases.

Other Officials Under Central Administration

• Muhtasib (Censor of Public Morals)
• Diwan-i-Khalisa (Incharge of Crown Lands)
• Diwan-i-Watan (Incharge of Jagirs)
• Mushrif-i-Mumalik (Accountant-General)
• Mustauf-1-Mumalik (Auditor-General)
• Daroga-i-Dak Chauki (Postmaster-General)
• Mir-i-Arz (Incharge of Petitions)
• Mir-i-Mal (Incharge of Privy Purse)
• Mir-i-Tozak (Incharge of Ceremonies)
• Mir Bahri (Incharge of Ships and Boats)
• Mir-i-Manzil (Incharge of Quarters)
• Mir Atish or Daroga-i-Topkhana (Head of Artillery)

Provincial Administration

• In AD 1580, Akbar divided the empire into twelve Subas. Each Suba was further divided into a number of sarkars, which were then split into Mahals and Parganas.
• During Shah Jahan's reign, another administrative unit, Chakla, came into existence. It was a cluster of a number of Parganas.

Provincial Governor

• The Governor of a Suba (Subadar) was directly appointed by the emperor, typically serving a tenure of around three years. His primary responsibilities included overseeing the welfare of the people and the army, as well as maintaining general law and order in the Suba.

Diwan

• The provincial Diwan supervised revenue collection in the Suba and maintained accounts of all expenditures, including salaries of officials and subordinates. He tracked expenses incurred by Suba's officials and subordinates in the form of salary.

Bakhshi

• Chosen by the imperial court based on Mir Bakhshi's advice, the Bakhshi carried out all military duties in the Suba, mirroring his central equivalent. He was responsible for checking and inspecting the soldiers and horses kept in good condition by the Mansabdars in the Suba. To facilitate his work, he stationed agents in Parganas and various important offices.

Some other Officials Under Provincial Administration

Local Administration

• At the local level in the Mughal Empire, the administration was structured into Sarkar, Pargana, and Mauza (village) levels.

Sarkars

Two crucial officials at the Sarkar level were the Faujdar and the Amalguzar.

• Faujdar: Serving as the executive head of the Sarkar, the Faujdar's jurisdiction was tailored to the region's needs. His primary responsibility was to ensure the safety of life and property for the residents in his jurisdiction. Safeguarding traders' safe passage within the region and overseeing recalcitrant Zamindars were also part of his duties.
• Amalguzar: The key revenue collector, known as the Amil or Amalguzar, was responsible for assessing and supervising revenue collection through subordinate officials. He submitted daily receipts and expenditure reports to the provincial Diwan.
• Thanedar: The Thana served as a location where the army was stationed to maintain law and order. Thanedars were tasked with arranging provisions for the army, particularly in disturbed areas and around cities. The head of a Thana was designated as Thanedar and generally placed under the Faujdar of the area.

Pargana Administration

• The Parganas served as administrative units beneath the Sarkar. The Shiqgdar functioned as the Executive Officer of the Pargana and assisted the Amils in revenue collection. The Amil oversaw revenue collection at the Pargana level. Qanungos maintained all records related to land in their respective areas, including details on different crops within the Pargana.

Village

• At the lowest administrative level, the village had the Mugaddam as the village headman, while the Patwari managed the village revenue records.

Judicial Administration

• Mughal Emperors, valuing justice, established a separate justice department known as Mahakuma-e-Adalat to oversee the proper administration of justice within the empire. The legal framework was primarily based on the Quran.

Administration of Civil Justice

• As a Muslim state, the Mughal administration of civil justice adhered entirely to the principles of the Quran. Qazis (judges) applied Quranic precepts in delivering justice, considering past judgments and ordinances issued by different emperors. While the emperor held the final authority in both original and appellate jurisdiction, he could not disregard the sacred laws of the Quran in dispensing justice.

Administration of Criminal Justice

• Similar to civil justice, the administration of criminal justice was also rooted in the precepts of the Quran.
• Criminal courts were referred to as Diwan-I-Mazalim. Criminal cases were categorized into main heads, including crimes against God, offenses against the sovereign, and crimes against individuals. Huda or retaliation and Tazir (punishment inflicted by the ruler) were applied as punishments, with severity varying based on the nature of the offenses.
• During Aurangzeb's reign, a Muslim could not be convicted solely on the testimony of a non-Muslim, but the reverse did not hold true.

Military Administration

• Until Aurangzeb's reign, the Mughal rulers upheld a large and efficient army. The presence of rebellious tribes like Afghans, Rajputs, Uzbegs, Jats, and Marathas posed challenges, necessitating a powerful army to suppress their revolts.

The army comprised five main units:

• Cavalry, with two types of horsemen: Bargir soldiers, provided with horses, arms, and attire by the state.
• Infantry, organized into two units: Bandukch (Riflemen) Samshirbaz (Swordsmen)
• War Elephants, used for both combat and transport.
• Artillery, which reached its peak efficiency during Akbar's era. Funding for the army's artillery came entirely from the imperial treasury.
• Navy, although weaker compared to the Europeans, was introduced in 1595-96, showcasing the civil and military capabilities of the nobility. Twin ranks, Zat and Sawar, were allocated.

The Ahadis: Most Trusted Troops

• Mughal emperors employed individual troopers known as Ahadis, who received higher salaries and formed a highly trusted corps directly recruited by the emperors.
• Additionally, a corps of royal bodyguards (Walashahis) was maintained by the Mughal emperors, with footmen (Piyadgan) serving as a miscellaneous body of troops.

Mansabdari System

•  The foundation of the Mughal army rested on the Mansabdari system, with its roots traceable to Genghis Khan. The term "Mansab" refers to a government officer who received a salary or Jagir based on his Mansab from the imperial treasury.
• Recruitment Techniques  All officers responsible for recruiting on behalf of the empire operated under the emperor's jurisdiction. The emperor wielded the authority to grant Mansabs to individuals of his choosing, along with the power to promote, demote, or dismiss them.
• Akbar demonstrated a keen eye for selecting capable individuals, often directly assigning them to high Mansabs. To keep Mansabdars on edge, Jagirs were frequently transferred.
• The promotion to higher ranks heavily depended on the Mansabdar's loyalty and dedication. Mansabdars were responsible for providing and maintaining soldiers, horsemen, horses, and elephants.
• Salary Structure  Mansabdars received their payment mostly in cash, enjoying substantial incomes. High-ranking officers awarded Jagirs did not hold them permanently; changes were periodically introduced.
•  The Mansabdar's salary was determined by a monthly scale system, with no hereditary aspects. During Jahangir's reign, the Du-aspa, Sih-aspa system was introduced, allowing a noble's Sawar rank to increase without affecting his Zat.
•  Mansabdars had the authority to collect revenue from their Jagirs through Zamindars who gathered dues from cultivators.
• Mansabs in any region of the empire could be summoned for tasks in both military and civic domains, significantly influencing the area's social, cultural, and economic aspects.
• However, the system fostered corruption and greed, often exploiting those of lower status.

Different Soldier Categories

In addition to the Mansabdars and their soldiers, various other categories of soldiers served the Mughal Empire, including

• Ahandi Soldiers: These were the emperor's personal soldiers, overseen by the Diwan and Bakhshi in terms of appointment, training, and discipline. While an ordinary horseman received a salary of only twelve to fifteen rupees per month, an Ahandi was paid up to five hundred rupees per month.
• Dakhili Soldiers: Recruited on behalf of the emperor, Dakhili soldiers were placed under the command of Mansabdars and constituted a part of the Mughal army.

Dual Ranks: Zat and Sawar

• Initially, a single number represented the rank, personal pay, and the size of the Mansabdar's contingent. For example, if a person held a Mansab of 500, they were required to maintain a contingent of 500 and received allowances for its upkeep. Additionally, they received personal pay according to a schedule.
• Over time, the rank of Mansabdars came to be denoted by two numbers: Zat and Sawar, likely around AD 1595-96.
• The first number (Zat) determined the Mansabdar's personal pay (Talab-Khassa) and their rank in the organization.
• The second number (Sawar) fixed the number of horses and horsemen to be maintained by the Mansabdar, determining the amount received for their contingent (Tabinan). 
• It had three scale gradations: Mansabdar (500 Zat and below), Amir (between 500-250 Zat), and Amir-i-Umda (2500 Zat and above).

Jagirdari System

• During Akbar's rule, the land was categorized into Khalisa and Jagir.

 Naqdi referred to Mansabdars who received monetary payments.

• Mashaut Jagirs were granted based on specific conditions, while Inam Jagirs were independent of rank and had no service obligations.
• Among these, Tankhwah Jagirs were transferable every 3 or 4 years, while Watan Jagirs were hereditary and non-transferable. The Jagirdar collected revenue through his own officials such as Karkun, Amin, Amil, and Potdar.
• Thus, the Mughal Jagir system resembled the Iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate. Like Iqta, assigning a Jagir to a Mansabdar did not confer hereditary rights on the Mansabdar.
•  In essence, Jagirdars (holders of Jagirs) owed their position to the Mughal Emperor, and there was no practical distinction between the state and the emperor during Mughal times.
• The Mughal Emperors protected their privileged position against hereditary claims to Jagirs by Jagirdars through the frequent transfer policy.

Revenue Administration

•  The revenue system was primarily based on the old Iqta system from the Delhi Sultanate.
• The principal source of revenue for the Mughal Empire was derived from land.

Methods of Land Revenue Assessment

Several methods of land revenue assessment were commonly used, including:

• Ghalla Bakshi or Bhaoli or Batai System: A simple crop-sharing method where the produce was arranged into heaps and divided into three shares known as Bhaoli and Batai.
• Kankut/Dambandi System: Kankut, derived from Kan (grain) and Kut (estimate or appraisal), involved fixing or determining the value of grain.
• Nasaq System: A rough assessment based on past revenue records, determining present revenue shares for peasants.

• Zabti System In Mughal India, the Zabti system emerged as a significant method of assessment, with its origins traced back to Sher Shah. During Akbar's reign, this system underwent multiple revisions.

• Dahsala System Building on the Zabti system, Todar Mal introduced fresh reforms collectively known as Ain-i-Dahsala, completed in AD 1580. This system categorized land into four types:
  • Polaj: Land cultivated annually.
  • Parauti: Land left fallow for a short period (1 or 2 years).
  • Chachar: Land left fallow for 3 to 4 years.
  • Banjar: Uncultivated for 5 years or more.
• Furthermore, according to Abul Fazl, Alu-Dahsala specified a 10-year cycle for each Pargana based on the category of cultivation and the prevailing prices.

Revenue Administration Officials

There were three distinct categories of officials involved in revenue administration:

• Officials and agents of Jagirdars.
• Permanent local officials, often hereditary, who were generally unaffected by the frequent transfers of Jagirdars.
• Imperial officials tasked with assisting and overseeing Jagirdars at the rural level. This group included various revenue officials.
• Karori: In AD 1574-75, Karori was responsible for both assessing and collecting revenue.
• Amins: Appointed in every mahal, Amins were tasked with the assessment of revenue.
• Qanungo: The local revenue official for the Pargana, usually belonging to one of the accountant castes. While it was a hereditary post, imperial approval was required for each new appointment. Initially compensated with 1% of the total revenue, Akbar later instituted salaries for Qanungos.
• Chaudhari: Similar to the Qanungo, the Chaudhari played a crucial role in revenue collection.
• Shiqqdar: Initially responsible for revenue collection and maintaining law and order during Sher Shah's reign, the Shiqqdar later became a subordinate official under the Karori during Akbar's later period.
• Muqaddam and Patwari: Village-level officials, with the Muqaddam serving as the village headman and allowed 2.5% of the total revenue collected for his services. The Patwari was responsible for maintaining records related to village land, individual cultivator holdings, types of crops grown, and details about fallow land.

Ijara System

• The Ijara system, also known as revenue farming, constituted another aspect of the revenue system during that era. In villages, when peasants lacked the resources for cultivation or faced calamities hindering cultivation, they would lease out their land through Ijara.
• It was expected that revenue officials or their relatives would refrain from participating in Ijara transactions, and revenue farmers were supposed to adhere to the stipulated land revenue without excessive extraction from the peasants. However, this ideal scenario was rarely realized in practice.
• The prevalence of Ijara appears to have been limited in the Zabti provinces, Gujarat, and the Mughat Dakhin. In Khalisa lands, this practice was infrequent, but in Jagir lands, it became a common feature. Jagirdars, who were revenue assignees, often leased out their assignments, sometimes sub-assigning portions to their subordinates or troopers.
• During the 18th century, the Ijara system evolved into a prevalent method of revenue assessment and collection. Mirasdars, designated hereditary landowners, were responsible for paying revenue to the state.

Economy During the Mughal Period

• India boasted a substantial class of affluent traders and merchants, with some ranking among the wealthiest in the world during medieval times. The Indian trading classes were numerous, well-organized, and highly professional, engaging in various forms of trade.

• Boat traffic on waterways and coastal trade along the seashore flourished during this era, facilitated by well-developed systems. Agents (Gumashtas) and commission agents (Dalals) played crucial roles in enabling the movement of trade across the region.

Major Trade Centers

• Bengal: Known for sugar, rice, muslin, and silk.
• Coast of Coromandel: Recognized for textile production.
• Gujarat: Famous for fine textiles, silks (Patola), and serving as the entry point for foreign goods.
• Burhanpur and Agra: Nodal points of trade in North India.
• Malabar: Renowned for pepper and spices.

Hundi System

• The Hundi system, a form of letter of credit payable after a specified period at a discount, played a vital role in facilitating the movement of goods. Hundis often included insurance, charged based on factors like the value of goods and destination. Sarrafs (Shrofs), who specialized in money exchange, were key players in handling Hundis and acted as private banks, contributing to the circulation of money during this period.

Mughal Paintings

• Mughals made distinctive contributions to painting, introducing new themes depicting court life, battle scenes, and chases. European painting, brought to the Mughal court by Portuguese priests during Akbar's reign, influenced many new features. Daswant and Basawan were renowned painters during Akbar's era. Under Jahangir's rule, portrait painting and depictions of animals saw significant progress, with Mansur emerging as a prominent figure in this field.

Literature During the Mughal Period

• Mughal rulers were prominent patrons of literature and laureates. This period witnessed the creation of significant biographies, memoirs, and historical texts.

Some of the important literary works were as follows:

• Baburnama: An autobiographical work written by Babur in Chagatai Turkish. It provides detailed insights into India's political, natural, economic, and environmental conditions during his time, including information about various crops cultivated in India.
• Humayunama: Authored by Gulbadan Begum, this work comprises the life history of Babur in its first part and details about Humayun's rule in the second part.
• Akbarnama: Written by Abul Fazl and divided into three volumes, this official chronicle extensively covers Akbar's reign. The last volume, Ain-i-Akbari, is also part of this compilation.
• Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri: Jahangir's autobiography, serving as a primary source of information about his era.
• Padshahnama: The first official document of Jahangir, offering detailed information about his rule.
• Tarikh-i-Shahjahani: Authored by Sadik Khan, this work provides comprehensive details about Shah Jahan's rule.
• Futuhat-i-Alamgiri: Composed by Isardas Nagar, this book delves into the relationship between Aurangzeb and the Rajputs.

Music in the Mughal Period

• According to Ain-i-Akbari, Abul Fazl mentions the presence of 36 high-grade musicians in Akbar's Mughal court.
• Tansen, considered one of the eight Maharatnas of Akbar's court, is hailed as the greatest musician in Indian history, credited with inventing many ragas.
• Mughal emperors were patrons of music, leading to its growth during their reigns.
• At Akbar's court, Hind and Islamic music merged, creating a unique musical culture.
• Music was an integral part of Mughal society, reflecting its rich cultural heritage during this period.

Mughal Architecture

Prelims Facts

• What was 'district' known as during the Mughal administration?

- Sarkar (UKPSC (Pre) 2004)

• The term 'Chakla' has been used in medieval Indian History sources, this was..........

- Territorial unit between Suba and Pargana, but not identical to Sarkar (UPPSC (Pre) 2018)

• The head of the military department under the recognised central machinery of administration during Akbar's reign was...........

- Mir Baksiti (UPPSC (Pre) 2004, MPPSC (Pre) 2011

• In Mughal administration, what does the term 'Muhtasib' meant? an officer in charge of public morals

- [BPSC (Pre) 2005]

• The Mansabdari system that Akbar implemented was borrowed from the system prevalent in which country?

- Mangolir (IAS (Pre) 1994)

• The 'D4-aspa' and 'Seh-aspa' rank was first introduced during the reign of ......

- Jahangir [APSC (Pre) 2013]

• Which Mughal emperor had the highest number of Hindu Generals in the Mughal army?

- Aurangzeb [UPPSC (Pre) 2000)

• Mansabdari System was the official nobility of the state started by which Mughal emperor?

- Akbar (UPPSC (Pre) 2019)

• What was the main source of income of the state in Mughal India?

- Land Revenue [UPPSC (Pre) 1995]

• Who introduced the confiscation system of property?

- Sher Shah Suri [BPSC (Pre) 1994]

• What was the name of the tax system which is also known as Settlement System?

- Dahsala (UPPSC (Pre) 2013

• Which method was the prevailing basis of land revenue collection in the Deccan during the reign of Akbar 7

- Number of plough (UPPSC (Pre) 2017)

• What was the name of the contract to be awarded for the collection of land rent?

- Ijarah (MPPSC (Pre) 2009)

• During the Mughal rule, the Copper Coin was Known by which ame?

- Dam (UPPSC (Fre) 2008)

• After the defeat of Delhi Sultanate. which ruler first introduced gold currency?

- Humayun [UPPSC (Pre) 2014

• Under which Mughal emperor's regime, the 'Jizyah was imposed again?

- Aurangzeb (UPPSC (Pre) 2002

• In which field did the Todarmal earned fame ?

- Land Revenue (UPPSC (Pre 1992

Self Check

1. With reference in Medieval Indie, which one of the following is the correct sequence in ascending order in terns of size?

(a) Pangana-Sankar Sode

(b) Sarkar- Pargana-Suba

(c) Suba-Sarker-Pangana

(d) Pargana-Suba-Sarkar

2. The term Chakle" has been used in Medieval Indian History sources. This was

UPSC (Pres 2018

(a) identical to Pargana.

(b) identical to Sarkar.

(c territorial unit between Suba and Pargana, but not

identical to Sarkar.

(d) None of the above

3. Assertion (A) The Mughal Empire was originally a military state.

Reason (R) The vitality of the development of the Central Government System depended on its military power.

UPPSC (Pre) 2021

Codes

(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.

(c) A is true, but R is false.

(d) A is false, but R is true.

4. With reference to the Mansabdari system, which of the statement (s) is/are correct?

UPPSC (Pre) 2019

1. The Mansabdari system was the official nobility of the state, started by Akbar:
2. A Mansabdari was hereditary.

Select the correct answer by using the codes given below.

(a) Only 1

(b) Both 1 and 2

(c) Only 2

(d) Neither I nor 2

5. With reference to Mughal India, what is/are the difference/differences between Jagirdar and Zamindar?

IAS (Pre) 2019

1. Jagirdars were holders of land assignments in lieu of judicial and police duties, whereas Zamindars were holders of revenue rights without obligation to perform any duty other than revenue collection.
2. Land assignments to Jagirdars were hereditary and revenue rights of Zamindars were not hereditary.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below.

(a) Only 1

(b) Only 2

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

6. What is the difference between Jagirdar and Zamindar in the context of Mughal? IAS (Pre 2019

1. Jagirdars had the right to allot land in lieu of judicial and Police obligations, whereas Zamindars had revenue rights and were not obliged to fulfill any obligation other than revenue collection.
2. Land settlements made to Jagirdars were hereditary and the revenue rights of the Zamindars were not hereditary

Which of the above statements) is/are correct?

(a) Only I

(b) Only 2

(c) Both l and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

7. Assertion (A) Akbar like Sher Shah tried to regulate the circulation of state coins.

Reason (R) Similar to the currency system of Sher Shah, the major copper coin of Akbar's time was the Dam.

UPPSC (Pre) 2019

Codes

(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.

(c) A is true, but R is false.

(d) A is false, but R is true.

8. A famous policy of land revenue system

'Ain-i-Dahsala' method was formulated by whom during the Akbar period ?

RAS/RTS (Pre) 2010, JPSC (Pre) 2013

(a) Shah Nawaz Khan

 (b) Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana

(c) Todar Mal

(d) Mulla Do-Piyaza

9. Which one of the following statements about the Ijara system is not correct?

BPSC (Pre) 2019

(a) It was the system of agricultural revenue farming.

(b) It promoted the role of middlemen (brokers).

(c) Under this system, the land revenue would be fixed for the farmer.

(d) Ijaradar used to pay a certain amount to the state treasury.

10. Tappa's style of music was refined and developed in which of the following Mughal Emperor' Courts?

UPPSC (Pre) 2023

(a) Akbar

(b) Shahjahan

(c) Muhammad Shah

(d) Jahangir

Know Right Answer

1 (a)

2 (c)

3 (b)

4 (a)

5 (d)

6 (d)

7 (a)

8 (c)

9 (c)

10 (c)

4 (a)

5 (d)

6 (d)

7 (a)

8 (c)

9 (c)

10 (c)