• The Khilafat movement and the Non-Cooperation movement were indeed significant mass movements that emerged in India between 1919 and 1922, both aimed at opposing British rule. Although they were initially formed to address separate issues, they adopted a unified plan of action based on nonviolence and non-cooperation.
• The Khilafat movement originated as a response to the British government's policies towards the crumbling Ottoman Empire, particularly the issue of the caliphate. Indian Muslims, led by the Ali brothers, joined forces with Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian National Congress to demand the restoration of the caliphate and the protection of Muslim interests. The movement gained widespread support and triggered various protests and demonstrations across India.
• Simultaneously, the Non-Cooperation movement, initiated by Mahatma Gandhi, aimed to mobilize Indians to reject cooperation with the British authorities and institutions. It called for the boycott of British goods, withdrawal from government-run educational institutions, and non-participation in British law courts. The movement sought to demonstrate the power of mass nonviolent resistance and to weaken British control by disrupting colonial administration.
• During this period, the Indian National Congress and the All India Muslim League, representing Hindus and Muslims respectively, forged closer ties. The two parties recognized the importance of united action against British rule and collaborated on several political initiatives.
• The efforts of both the Congress and the Muslim League led to numerous political demonstrations, strikes, and protests across India. The movements garnered significant public support and participation, effectively challenging British authority and highlighting the collective aspirations for independence and self-governance.
• Overall, the Khilafat movement and the Non-Cooperation movement represented a critical phase in India's struggle for independence. They symbolized the unity of diverse religious and political groups and laid the groundwork for future mass movements that would ultimately contribute to the achievement of independence in 1947.

Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement - Background

• The Khilafat and Non-Cooperation movements emerged against the backdrop of growing resentment towards British rule in India. Several factors contributed to the formation of these movements:
• Injustice towards Turkey: During World War I, Turkey, as part of the Central Powers, fought against Britain. Following Turkey's defeat, British policies towards the crumbling Ottoman Empire were seen as unjust, particularly regarding the issue of the caliphate. This injustice ignited a sense of solidarity among Indian Muslims, who felt the need to protect Muslim interests and the institution of the caliphate.
• Atrocities and Repression: The British government's actions during and after the war further fueled discontent. The implementation of the Rowlatt Act, which curbed civil liberties, and the imposition of martial law in Punjab were seen as oppressive measures. The Jallianwala Bagh massacre, where British troops fired upon unarmed Indian protesters, exposed the brutal and uncivilized face of foreign rule.
• Sham Investigations and Support for Atrocities: The Hunter Commission, appointed to investigate the atrocities in Punjab, was perceived as a mere cover-up. The House of Lords in the British Parliament supported General Dyer, the perpetrator of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. This lack of accountability and the British public's solidarity with Dyer intensified Indian resentment towards colonial rule.
• Failure of Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms: The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, introduced through the Government of India Act (1919), aimed to address Indian demands for self-government. However, the ill-conceived dyarchy system, which divided power between British officials and Indian ministers, failed to satisfy the growing aspirations for genuine self-rule.
• Economic Hardship: The post-war years witnessed a deteriorating economic situation in India. Rising commodity prices, the declining output of Indian industries, increased burdens of taxes and rents, and overall economic hardship affected various segments of society. These conditions further fueled anti-British sentiments and discontent.
• In light of these factors, the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation movements emerged as mass movements to challenge British rule and address grievances related to Turkey, injustice, repression, failed reforms, and economic hardships. They represented a united front against foreign rule and marked a significant phase in India's struggle for independence.

Khilafat Issue

• The Khilafat issue was a significant factor in the emergence of the Khilafat Movement in India. Here are the key points related to the Khilafat issue:
• Spiritual Leader: Muslims in India and worldwide regarded the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, who held the title of Khalifa (Caliph), as their spiritual leader. The Khalifa was seen as the protector of Islamic interests and the symbol of Muslim unity.
• World War I and Ottoman Empire: During World War I, the Ottoman Empire, led by the Khalifa, aligned itself with Germany and Austria-Hungary against the British. Indian Muslims supported the British war effort with the understanding that the sacred sites of the Ottoman Empire, including those in Jerusalem and Mecca, would remain under the Khalifa's control.
• Post-War Discontent: However, after the war, the Ottoman Empire was dismembered, and Turkey underwent significant territorial losses. The Khalifa was deposed, and the institution of the caliphate was abolished. This was seen as a betrayal of the Muslims' trust and an insult to their religious sentiments.
• Formation of the Khilafat Movement: In response to these developments, the Khilafat Movement was founded by prominent Muslim leaders such as the Ali brothers (Shaukat Ali and Mohammad Ali), Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Ajmal Khan, and Hasrat Mohani. Their goal was to oppose British policies and pressure the British government to change its stance towards Turkey and the Khalifa.
• All India Khilafat Committee: In early 1919, the leaders formed the All India Khilafat Committee to coordinate the movement's activities across India. The committee served as a platform for organizing protests, mobilizing public support, and strategizing for a nationwide uprising.
• Boycott of British Goods: As part of their protest against British policies, the Khilafat Movement issued a call to boycott British goods. This boycott aimed to exert economic pressure on the British government and demonstrate the collective strength of the movement.
• The Khilafat issue, along with the broader sentiment of Muslim unity and the protection of Islamic interests, played a crucial role in galvanizing Muslims in India and shaping the objectives of the Khilafat Movement during the period of 1919-1924.

Development of Khilafat Non-Cooperation

• Following initial efforts of meetings, petitions, and deputations by the Khilafat leaders in support of the Khilafat cause, the movement gradually evolved into a more militant and active agitation. The development of the Khilafat movement's alliance with the Non-Cooperation movement, spearheaded by Mahatma Gandhi, played a significant role in shaping its trajectory. Here are the key points regarding the development of Khilafat Non-Cooperation:
• Militant Agitation: As discontent grew over the British government's policies towards Turkey and the Khalifa, some members of the Khilafat movement began advocating for more assertive actions. They called for the cessation of all cooperation with the British government as a means of exerting pressure and expressing their grievances.
• Boycott of British Goods: At the All India Khilafat Conference held in Delhi in November 1919, the leaders of the Khilafat movement issued a call for a boycott of British goods. This boycott was seen as a way to economically impact the British government and gain attention for their cause.
• Ceasing Cooperation: The Khilafat leaders made it clear that if the post-war peace terms were not favourable to Turkey, they would discontinue all cooperation with the British government. This threat aimed to compel the government to reconsider its stance and address the demands of the Khilafat movement.
• Gandhi's Role: Mahatma Gandhi, who served as the president of the All India Khilafat Committee at the time, recognized the potential of the Khilafat issue as a platform for launching a mass and united non-cooperation movement against the government. He saw the alliance between the Khilafat movement and the Non-Cooperation movement as a means to achieve broader political objectives and mobilize the Indian masses against British rule.
• By aligning with the Khilafat movement's demands and incorporating them into the Non-Cooperation movement, Gandhi aimed to forge a unified struggle against British rule, combining the aspirations of both the Hindus and Muslims. This alliance had a significant impact on shaping the course of the Indian independence movement and drawing widespread support from diverse segments of society.

Congress and Muslim League’s Stand on Khilafat Issue

• The Congress and the Muslim League both played significant roles in the Khilafat issue and the broader Khilafat movement. Here are the key points regarding their stands on the Khilafat issue:
• Congress Support: The Congress, under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, recognized the importance of the Khilafat issue in mobilizing Muslims and creating unity between Hindus and Muslims in the struggle against British rule. Gandhi supported the principles of satyagraha (nonviolent resistance) and non-cooperation as means to address the Khilafat issue.
• Divisions within Congress: However, there were divisions within Congress regarding the course of action to be taken on the Khilafat issue. Some members were hesitant about aligning with a religious cause and feared that it might divert attention from the broader struggle for Indian independence. These divisions led to debates and discussions within the Congress on the extent of support to be extended to the Khilafat movement.
• Increasing Muslim Participation: Eventually, Congress recognized that supporting the Khilafat movement presented an opportunity to bring Hindus and Muslims together and to increase Muslim participation in mass movements for independence. The Congress leadership believed that the Khilafat issue had the potential to unite different religious communities under a common cause, thereby strengthening the broader struggle against British rule.
• Muslim League Support: The Muslim League, an organization primarily focused on Muslim interests and representation, also decided to extend its full support to Congress and its political agitation on the Khilafat issue. The League recognized the significance of the Khilafat cause for the Muslim community and saw cooperation with Congress as a means to advance their goals.
• Both the Congress and the Muslim League understood the importance of unity and collaboration on the Khilafat issue, leading to their joint support and cooperation during this period. This alignment between the two organizations aimed to create a broad-based movement that could effectively challenge British policies and advance the demands of the Khilafat movement.

Non-Cooperation Khilafat Movement

• The Non-Cooperation Khilafat Movement, which emerged as a response to the grievances surrounding the Khilafat issue, gained momentum in early 1920. Here are the key developments of the movement:
• Unsuccessful Deputation: In an attempt to address their grievances, a joint Hindu-Muslim deputation was sent to the Viceroy in early 1920. However, the deputation did not achieve the desired outcomes, failing to secure redress on the Khilafat issue.
• Gandhi's Declaration: In February 1920, Mahatma Gandhi declared that if the terms of the peace treaty related to the Khilafat issue did not satisfy Indian Muslims, he would soon lead a non-cooperation movement. This declaration highlighted the significance of the Khilafat issue in shaping the course of the movement.
• Treaty of Sevres: The Treaty of Sevres, signed in May 1920, resulted in the complete dismemberment of Turkey. This development further fueled the sentiments of discontent among Indian Muslims and added to the urgency of the movement.
• All-Party Conference and Boycott: An all-party conference held in Allahabad approved a boycott of schools, colleges, and law courts as a form of protest. Mahatma Gandhi was appointed to lead this non-cooperation movement, which encompassed the demands of both the Khilafat issue and other grievances.
• Launch of the Movement: With the endorsement of the Khilafat Committee, the non-cooperation campaign was formally launched, marking the beginning of a mass movement that aimed to exert pressure on the British government through civil disobedience and nonviolent resistance.
• The Non-Cooperation Khilafat Movement represented the collective efforts of various political and social groups to address the Khilafat issue and advocate for broader demands related to Indian independence. It demonstrated the power of unified Hindu-Muslim mobilization and the adoption of nonviolent means in challenging British rule in India.

Special Session in Calcutta

• During a special session in Calcutta in September 1920, Congress approved a comprehensive non-cooperation programme that aimed to address the issues of the Punjab and Khilafat and ultimately establish swaraj (self-rule). Lala Lajpat Rai presided over this session, which laid out the following key elements of the programme:
• Boycott of Government Schools and Colleges: Participants were encouraged to boycott educational institutions under government control and promote alternative means of education, emphasizing the administration of justice through Panchayats (local self-governing bodies).
• Boycott of Law Courts: Instead of relying on the British-administered legal system, participants were urged to boycott law courts and seek justice through alternative methods.
• Boycott of Legislative Councils: Although there were some differences of opinion on this matter, the programme included a call to boycott the British-controlled Legislative Councils. Some leaders, like C.R. Das, initially had reservations but ultimately agreed to comply with the discipline of Congress. Those who supported the boycott stayed away from the elections held in November 1920, and a majority of voters also abstained.
• Boycott of Foreign Cloth: Participants were encouraged to boycott foreign-made cloth and promote the use of khadi (homespun cloth) as a symbol of self-reliance and resistance against British economic dominance. Hand-spinning was also emphasized as a means of promoting self-sufficiency.
• Renunciation of Government Honours and Titles: Participants were called upon to renounce government honours and titles, rejecting symbols of British authority and recognition. As the movement progressed, mass civil disobedience was envisioned, which could include resignation from government service and the nonpayment of taxes.
• Additionally, participants were expected to work towards Hindu-Muslim unity and the abolition of untouchability. Nonviolence remained a central principle throughout the movement, emphasizing peaceful resistance as a means to achieve the movement's objectives.
• This comprehensive programme aimed to mobilize the masses and exert pressure on the British government through various forms of non-cooperation, while also addressing social and communal issues within Indian society.

Nagpur Session

• The Nagpur Session of the Indian National Congress, held in December 1920, marked a significant turning point in the Congress's approach to achieving self-government (swaraj). Here are the key outcomes of the Nagpur Session:
• Endorsement of the Non-Cooperation Programme: The session reaffirmed the Congress's commitment to the non-cooperation movement, which included the boycott of government institutions, foreign goods, and British-controlled legislative bodies.
• Change in Congress Creed: The Nagpur Session brought about a crucial change in Congress's ideology. Instead of seeking self-government through constitutional means and negotiations with the British, the Congress decided to adopt extra-constitutional mass struggle as the path to achieving swaraj. This shift reflected a more assertive and radical stance in the fight against British rule.
• Formation of Congress Working Committee (CWC): To provide cohesive and effective leadership to Congress, a Congress Working Committee consisting of 15 members was established. This committee would play a central role in guiding the Congress's activities and decision-making process.
• Formation of Provincial Congress Committees: The session saw the creation of Provincial Congress Committees based on linguistic regions. This reorganization aimed to strengthen the Congress's presence at the regional level and promote effective coordination in different parts of India.
• Formation of Ward Committees: Additionally, ward committees were established to mobilize support at the grassroots level, allowing greater participation of the common people in the movement.
• Reduced Entry Fee: To make Congress more inclusive and accessible to a broader section of society, the entry fee was reduced to four annas, making it easier for ordinary people to become members and actively participate in the political process.
• Gandhi's Optimistic Declaration: During the Nagpur Session, Mahatma Gandhi expressed confidence that if the non-cooperation programme was fully and effectively implemented, India could achieve swaraj within a year. This declaration instilled hope and determination among the Congress leaders and supporters.
• The Nagpur Session set the stage for a more assertive and united Congress that was determined to intensify the struggle for self-rule through peaceful and legitimate mass movements. The adoption of non-cooperation as a strategic approach aimed to mobilize the masses and exert maximum pressure on the British authorities to meet the demands of the Indian people.

Role of Mahatma Gandhi

• Mahatma Gandhi played a pivotal role in both the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation movements, leaving a profound impact on India's struggle for independence. Here are some key aspects of Gandhi's involvement:
• Leadership and Ideology: Gandhi emerged as the supreme leader of the Indian national movement during this period. His philosophy of nonviolence (ahimsa) and non-cooperation became the guiding principles of the movements. Gandhi believed in the power of truth, nonviolent resistance, and moral courage as means to achieve political and social change.
• Unifying Hindu-Muslim Relations: Gandhi recognized the significance of Hindu-Muslim unity in the national movement. He actively supported the Khilafat cause and saw it as an opportunity to bridge the communal divide and foster a united front against British rule. His efforts aimed at promoting harmony and cooperation between Hindus and Muslims, emphasizing the shared struggle for justice and freedom.
• Mass Mobilization and Civil Disobedience: Gandhi, along with other leaders, embarked on extensive tours across the country, addressing public gatherings, organizing protests, and spreading the message of non-cooperation. He advocated for the boycott of British goods, institutions, and symbols of authority. Gandhi's call for mass civil disobedience, including acts like non-payment of taxes and resignation from government positions, aimed to undermine British authority and demonstrate the power of the people's collective action.
• Satyagraha: Gandhi popularized the concept of Satyagraha, a nonviolent form of resistance, as a means to challenge oppressive laws and policies. Satyagrahis were trained to peacefully confront injustice, endure suffering, and appeal to the conscience of their oppressors. Through Satyagraha, Gandhi sought to transform the individual and society, fostering self-discipline, self-reliance, and self-respect among Indians.
• Influence on Congress: Gandhi's ideas and leadership deeply influenced the Indian National Congress. His principle of nonviolence gained traction within the party, leading to its adoption as a core principle. His emphasis on mass participation, grassroots organization, and unity helped shape Congress's approach to the freedom struggle.
• Shift in Congress's Strategy: Under Gandhi's influence, Congress shifted from seeking limited reforms within the existing British framework to pursuing more radical and assertive methods. The Non-Cooperation Movement marked a departure from the previous approach of constitutional negotiations, and Gandhi's call for swaraj through peaceful but determined mass struggle became a rallying cry for independence.
• Overall, Mahatma Gandhi's leadership, moral authority, and commitment to nonviolence were instrumental in shaping the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation movements, mobilizing the masses, and transforming India's struggle against colonial rule into a mass movement with widespread public support.

Spread of the Movement

• The spread of the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement led by Gandhi and supported by various leaders resulted in widespread participation and the emergence of numerous local struggles. Here are some key aspects of the movement's spread:
• National Educational Institutions: As part of the non-cooperation movement, national schools and colleges were established to promote the boycott of government educational institutions. Around 90,000 students left government schools and colleges to join these new institutions, which were led by prominent leaders like Acharya Narendra Dev, C.R. Das, Lala Lajpat Rai, Zakir Hussain, and Subhash Bose.
• Participation of Lawyers: Many lawyers, including prominent figures like Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, C.R. Das, C. Raja Gopalachari, Vallabhbhai Patel, and Rajendra Prasad, actively participated in the movement, lending their support and legal expertise.
• Boycott of Foreign Goods: The movement advocated for the boycott of foreign cloth, which led to public burnings of foreign textiles and a significant reduction in imports. This boycott was seen as a symbolic rejection of British dominance and a way to promote the use of Indian-made khadi cloth.
• Picketing and Protests: Picketing was carried out in various locations, targeting shops selling foreign liquor and toddy shops. Strikes and protests were organized in tea plantations, steamer services, and railways, leading to disruptions and asserting the movement's non-cooperation with British institutions.
• Tilak Swaraj Fund: The Tilak Swaraj Fund, established to support the movement's activities, received overwhelming contributions, with a total collection of one crore rupees. This financial support helped sustain the movement's initiatives and organizational efforts.
• Local Struggles and Movements: The spirit of defiance and unrest sparked several local movements and struggles across India. These included the Awadh Kisan Movement in Uttar Pradesh, the Eka Movement in Uttar Pradesh, the Mappila Revolt in Malabar (now Kerala), and the Sikh agitation for the removal of mahants (priestly figures) in Punjab. These movements highlighted the widespread discontent and resistance against British rule in different regions.
• Call for Resignation from the Army: The Ali brothers, along with Gandhi's support, called for Muslims to resign from the army as a means of protesting against British policies. This led to their arrest and further fueled the spirit of resistance and civil disobedience.
• Overall, the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement witnessed wide-scale participation of people from various backgrounds and regions of India. The movement's call for boycotts, picketing, non-payment of taxes, and civil disobedience resonated with the masses, resulting in the emergence of numerous local struggles and protests against British rule.

Government Response

• The government responded to the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement with a combination of attempts at negotiation and subsequent repressive measures. Here are some key aspects of the government's response:
• Failed Negotiations: In May 1921, talks between Mahatma Gandhi and Viceroy Reading took place, but they broke down due to differences over the content of speeches made by the Ali brothers. The government wanted Gandhi to urge the Ali brothers to remove portions of their speeches that suggested violence. Gandhi, recognizing the government's intention to divide him from the Khilafat leaders, refused to comply.
• Harsh Retaliation: In December, the government responded to the movement with a harsh crackdown. The volunteer corps, which played a significant role in organizing protests and maintaining discipline, were declared illegal. Public meetings were prohibited, curtailing the movement's ability to gather and mobilize support. The press was also silenced, limiting the dissemination of information and ideas. Additionally, many leaders, excluding Gandhi, were arrested as a means of suppressing the movement.
• Repressive Measures: The government used various repressive measures to quell the movement. These included arrests, detentions, and charges against leaders and activists. By targeting leaders and restricting their activities, the government aimed to undermine the movement's effectiveness and create a sense of fear and uncertainty among the participants.
• Despite the government's efforts to suppress the movement, the spirit of resistance persisted, and the movement continued to have an impact on the Indian freedom struggle. The government's response highlighted its determination to maintain control and prevent the growth of mass movements challenging British rule.

Chauri Chaura Incident

• The Chauri Chaura incident, which occurred on February 5, 1922, had a significant impact on the course of the Non-Cooperation Movement and the Indian freedom struggle. Here are some key details about the incident and its consequences:
• Incident Details: At Chauri Chaura, in Gorakhpur district of Uttar Pradesh, a procession of Congress and Khilafat activists was confronted by the police who attempted to stop them. The activists became agitated and attacked the police. In response, the police opened fire, leading to further violence. The situation escalated when the enraged procession attacked and set fire to the police station, resulting in the death of all the police personnel inside.
• Gandhi's Reaction: Mahatma Gandhi, shocked and deeply saddened by the incident, believed that the movement had lost its nonviolent character and spiralled into violence. He believed that such acts of violence were contrary to the principles of the movement and could not be justified. In response to the Chauri Chaura incident, Gandhi made the decision to withdraw from the Non-Cooperation Movement as a means of expressing his disapproval and to prevent further violence.
• Impact on the Movement: The Chauri Chaura incident marked a turning point in the Non-Cooperation Movement. Gandhi's decision to withdraw from the movement had a demoralizing effect on the activists and supporters who had been involved in the mass civil disobedience campaign. The movement was suspended, and the planned civil disobedience in Bardoli was postponed. The incident also led to a period of introspection and reevaluation within the Indian National Congress and the freedom movement as a whole.
• Significance and Lessons Learned: The Chauri Chaura incident highlighted the importance of maintaining discipline and restraint in mass movements. Gandhi's characterization of the incident as a "Himalayan Blunder" emphasized the need for adherence to nonviolence as a core principle of the freedom struggle. It served as a reminder that the struggle for independence required not just mass participation but also a commitment to nonviolent means.
• The Chauri Chaura incident had a profound impact on the trajectory of the Indian freedom struggle. It demonstrated the challenges and complexities involved in organizing and sustaining mass movements and underscored the importance of nonviolence as a guiding principle.

Impact of Non-Cooperation Movement

• The Non-Cooperation Movement had significant impacts on both the Indian nationalist movement and the British authorities. Here are some of the key impacts:
• Encouragement and Unity: The Non-Cooperation Movement came as a surprise to the British authorities and provided immense encouragement to millions of Indian nationalists. The unity of the country was strengthened as people from various backgrounds, including Hindus and Muslims, participated in the movement, highlighting the communal harmony of the nation.
• Mass Movement and Political Awareness: The Non-Cooperation Movement was a truly mass movement, with lakhs (hundreds of thousands) of Indians openly protesting the government through peaceful means. This widespread participation increased political awareness among the people, making them more conscious of their political rights and less fearful of the government. The movement helped to establish the popularity of the Indian National Congress as a political force representing the aspirations of the people.
• Economic Impact: The boycott of British goods led to a significant decline in imports from the United Kingdom, particularly in sectors such as sugar. Indian merchants and mill owners benefited financially during this time, as the boycott created a demand for Indian-made goods, particularly Khadi (hand-spun and handwoven cloth promoted by Gandhi).
• Gandhiji's Populist Leadership: The Non-Cooperation Movement played a crucial role in establishing Mahatma Gandhi as a populist leader. His ideology of nonviolence and non-cooperation resonated with the masses, and his leadership during the movement solidified his position as a prominent figure in the Indian nationalist movement.
• Overall, the Non-Cooperation Movement had far-reaching consequences, both in terms of the political awakening of the masses and the economic impact on British imports. It bolstered nationalist sentiments, highlighted the unity of the Indian people, and established Gandhi's leadership in the struggle for independence.

Conclusion

• The Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movements had a significant impact on India's struggle for independence. They mobilized millions of Indians across different sections of society, creating a sense of unity and nationalist fervour. The movements brought Hindus and Muslims together for a common cause, demonstrating communal harmony.
• However, there were challenges and setbacks along the way. The movements faced criticism and divisions within the Indian National Congress and other political groups. Communal tensions resurfaced, leading to the resurgence of the Muslim League and the Hindu Mahasabha, which undermined the idea of a unified Indian identity.
• The aftermath of the movements also witnessed the fragmentation of political parties and the emergence of different factions with varying approaches to the struggle for independence. Some nationalist leaders, driven by communal considerations, deviated from the path of unity and cooperation.
• Gandhi's efforts to address communal harmony through his fast in 1924 were met with limited success. The inhumanity revealed in communal riots persisted, and the challenges of communalism continued to cast a shadow over the national movement.
• Overall, while the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movements achieved significant mobilization and raised nationalist sentiments, they also faced internal divisions and challenges that hindered the realization of their objectives. Nonetheless, these movements played a crucial role in shaping the course of India's independence struggle and laying the foundation for future movements and campaigns.