• The biggest threat to the British colonial power during its rule in India. This was the major uprising against the rule of British East India Company. It is primarily considered the first ever gaint step of Indians to free its own nation

Introduction

• The Revolt of 1857 transpired as a result of the cumulative impact of British expansionist policies, economic exploitation, and administrative measures spanning several years. These policies had detrimental effects on the various segments of Indian society, including the rulers of Indian states, sepoys, zamindars, peasants, pandits, traders, and maulvis.

• This event led to a transformative shift in the administration of British India, replacing the Company rule with the rule of the crown.

Pre-1857 Sepoy Revolts

• Prior to the Revolt of 1857, several popular uprisings occurred against the British, and at times, against Indian landlords. Notable mutinies preceding 1857 included:

Bengal Sepoy Mutiny (1764)

• The Bengal Sepoy Mutiny marked the first such uprising in India. Sepoys demanded equal treatment and increased pay, citing the substantial accumulation of wealth by the East India Company. The mutiny, predominantly non-violent, was quelled by the British.

Vellore Mutiny (1806)

• The Vellore Mutiny unfolded on July 10, 1806, at Vellore Fort. This marked the first instance of a violent mutiny by Indian sepoys against the East India Company, occurring almost fifty years before the Great Revolt of 1857.

• Additionally, they were instructed to wear a leather cockade to replace their existing turbans.
• During the uprising, several officers and soldiers, including Colonel St John Fancourt, the Fort's Commander, were killed by the sepoys. To quell the rebellion, Sir Robert Rollo Gillespie was dispatched by the British, and he ruthlessly subdued the revolt.
• Following the mutiny, all three Madras battalions involved were disbanded. The senior British officers responsible for the controversial dress regulations were recalled to England, and the orders regarding the new turbans (round hats) were rescinded.

Barrackpore Mutiny (1824)

• The Mutiny at Barrackpore cantonment in 1824 stemmed from the resistance of the 47th Native Infantry of the Bengal Army to march to Chittagong and, subsequently, board ships destined for Rangoon to partake in the First Anglo-Burmese War in October 1824.

• During this period, higher-caste Indian Sepoys held a taboo against crossing the sea, fearing a loss of their high caste. Furthermore, there were no bullocks available to transport the sepoys' belongings until Chittagong. Consequently, the native soldiers refused to march unless their emoluments were increased, and means were provided for carrying their belongings.

Causes of the 1857 Revolt

The uprising of 1857 was shaped by several pivotal factors, encompassing:

• Administrative Factors
• Economic Factors
• Military Factors
• Political Factors
• Socio-Religious Factors
• Immediate Causes

Political Grievances

• The East India Company neglected the interests and appeals of monarchs and nawabs, leading to widespread discontent.
• Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi sought her adopted son's right to inherit the kingdom after her husband's demise.
• Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II, demanded his father's pension from the company but faced rejection.
• Hindu princes were denied the right to succession, with the Doctrine of Lapse and Subsidiary Alliances employed to dominate states and strip them of their powers.
• Awadh, a significant contributor of around 75,000 sepoys to the company, was annexed by Lord Dalhousie under allegations of misgovernance, provoking discontent among sepoys.
• The Company terminated the Mughal Dynasty, removing the Mughal king's name from the coins it minted.

Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of Lapse

• The Subsidiary Alliance was a treaty formulated by Wellesley between the East India Company and Indian rulers. Under this arrangement, Indian rulers had to relinquish their armed forces, provide maintenance to the British army, and refrain from forming alliances. A Company official, known as the Resident, was stationed at the court of rulers to oversee the implementation of the treaty.
• The Doctrine of Lapse, implemented by Dalhousie during his rule from 1848 to 1856, was an annexation policy. According to this doctrine, any ruler without a male heir could be annexed by the Company, and any adopted son would inherit only his father's personal property and assets.
• States annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse include:
  • Satara (1848)
  • Jaitpur (1849)
  • Sambhalpur (1850)
  • Baghat (1850)
  • Udaipur (1852)
  • Jhansi (1853)
  • Nagpur (1854)

Administrative Grievances

Several administrative aspects contributed to the discontent among Indians:

• The replacement of the Persian language with English as the court language was unpopular among the people.
• Under British rule, both peasants and landlords faced hardships. Peasants bore heavy taxes, and while zamindars understood the peasants' problems, British focus on fixed revenue collections led to dissatisfaction.
• Zamindars were unhappy as their lands were often seized, making them feel inferior.
• Revenue settlement policies dissatisfied new zamindars and subjected peasants to harsh collections and official brutalities.
• Corruption at lower levels of administration, including the police, petty officials, and lower law courts, adversely impacted common people.
• The intricate judicial system facilitated the exploitation of the poor by the wealthy. Instances of torturing and imprisoning cultivators for unpaid rent, land revenue, or debt were widespread.

Socio-Religious Factors

• British colonialists believed in their cultural superiority and considered it their right to civilize Indian society. Their interventions, such as the abolition of the practice of sati, the legalization of widow remarriage, and the introduction of Western education for girls, were perceived as unwarranted interference.
• A significant factor contributing to anti-British sentiments was the fear of religious interference. This fear arose from the activities of Christian missionaries who infiltrated schools, hospitals, prisons, and marketplaces. These missionaries attempted conversions and openly attacked Hinduism and Islam, criticizing long-standing customs and traditions.
• Religious sentiments were further wounded by the policy of taxing lands associated with temples, mosques, priests, and charitable institutions, which were previously exempt from taxes.

Economic Factors

• The primary cause of popular discontent stemmed from the economic exploitation by the British. The complete disruption of the traditional economic structure led to the impoverishment of a vast majority, including peasants, artisans, handicraftsmen, and traditional zamindars and chiefs.

• The British also favored Western imports, often selling them at lower prices, making it difficult for Indian commodities to compete. Both of these factors contributed to the impoverishment of the populace.
• This economic strain created pressure on agricultural lands, fostering discontent in rural areas, which also affected sepoys originating from these regions.

Military Causes

• Indian sepoys constituted more than 87% of the British troops stationed in India, yet they were perceived as inferior to their British counterparts. Notably, an Indian Sepoy received lower pay than a European sepoy of the same rank.
• Discrimination within the army, evident in disparities in payments and promotions between British and Indian soldiers, further exacerbated the sepoys' grievances. The withdrawal of foreign allowances (Bhatta) for sepoys compounded their dissatisfaction with their pay, allowances, and overall conditions of service.
• Historically, in 1824, sepoys were ordered to travel to Burma by sea to fight for the East India Company. When they initially refused, they faced punishment, but later, they acquiesced to go by the land route. 

Immediate Cause

• The immediate cause of discontent among sepoys was fueled by the introduction of the Enfield rifle in 1857. The cartridge for this rifle, rumored to be greased with cow and pig fat, was required to be bitten before use. Additionally, reports circulated about the mixing of bone dust in flour (Atta). These issues became focal points for the growing dissatisfaction among sepoys, who believed these measures aimed to violate their religious beliefs and potentially convert them to Christianity.
• Both Hindu and Muslim sentiments were deeply hurt by these actions, and no steps were taken to allay these fears. On May 9, 85 soldiers in Meerut refused to use the new rifle, leading to their sentencing to ten years' imprisonment.

Enfield P-53 rifle

•  The Enfield P-53 rifle, introduced by the East India Company in the mid-1850s, required soldiers to bite off the ends of greased cartridges for loading, further contributing to the grievances among the sepoys. The rumor that the grease used was cow or pig fat, considered objectionable to Hindu and Muslim soldiers, added to their discontent.

Outside Influences on the Revolt of 1857

• The period when discontent among the people was on the rise coincided with events that shattered the prevailing belief in the invincibility of the British. These events encouraged the perception that the days of British rule were numbered.

Beginning and course of Revolt

• The beginning of the revolt traces back to April 8, 1857, when Mangal Pandey was hanged for attacking his officers in Barrackpore. Subsequently, sepoys at Meerut refused to perform army drills using new cartridges suspected of being coated with the fat of cows and pigs.
• On May 9, 1857, the sepoys were dismissed and sentenced to ten years in jail for disobedience. The response of other Indian soldiers in Meerut was remarkable. On May 10, they marched to the jail, released the imprisoned sepoys, attacked and killed British officers, captured guns and ammunition, set fire to British buildings, and declared war on the firangis (foreigners).

• Delhi was recaptured by the British on September 20, 1857, and Bahadur Shah was taken prisoner and sent to Rangoon (Myanmar), where he died in 1862. Many leaders of the rebellion, including Nana Saheb and Rani Lakshmibai, were defeated. Nana Saheb escaped to Nepal in 1859, while Rani Lakshmibai died on the battlefield in June 1858. By 1859, the revolt had been suppressed, and the British had to bring in additional supplies and resources to re-establish their governance.

Spread of the Mutiny and Revolt

Important Centres of Revolt

Different Leaders Associated with the Revolt of 1857

Causes of the Failure of the Revolt

Several significant factors contributed to the failure of the Revolt of 1857, including:

Lack of a Unified Ideology

• The revolt lacked a common idea or goal, and after gaining control of various regions, leaders and rebels failed to articulate a cohesive plan for India's future.
• Leaders of the revolt were united by a shared disdain for alien rule, but they lacked a visionary alternative. Not having a forward-looking plan undermined their ability to withstand the British onslaught.

Lack of Unity Among Leaders

• The rebels faced a lack of unity, as the sepoys of Bengal revolted against the East India Company, while soldiers from Punjab and Bombay supported the Company against the sepoys. 
• Sepoys and leaders like Tantia Tope fought for Mughal rule, while Sikhs in Punjab resisted returning under Muslim rule. These internal divisions weakened the spirit within the ranks of the rebels, with selfishness and narrow perspectives among the leaders draining the strength of the revolt.

Lack of Support from Regional Powers

•  Regional powers did not uniformly support the rebellion. Many natives actively assisted the British in suppressing the revolt.
• Sikhs, fearing the potential revival of Mughal authority, did not support the rebels, given their history of oppression under Mughal rule.
• Similarly, Rajput Chieftains in Rajasthan and Nizams in Hyderabad, having suffered harassment from the Marathas, were not inclined to support the revival of Maratha power.

Lack of Support from Educated Indians

• Educated Indians, especially in Bengal and Bombay regions, viewed the Revolt of 1857 as a backward-looking attempt by self-interested individuals. This educated middle class, products of the British education system, considered the British as proponents of modernization.

Military Superiority of the British

• The rebels fought with limited weaponry such as swords, spears, and lances, while the British were equipped with advanced munitions of war, including Enfield rifles, giving them a significant military advantage.
• Sepoys serving under the East India Company utilized firearms provided by the company. When their ammunition depleted, the sepoys and other rebels transitioned to traditional weapons like swords and spears.

Consequences of the Revolt

• The Revolt of 1857 led to significant alterations in the administrative structure of British India, prompting changes in government policies.

• Following this proclamation, a new policy emerged, emphasizing perpetual support for native princes and non-intervention in matters of religious belief in India.
•  The proclamation declared that India would henceforth be governed by and in the name of the British Monarch through a Secretary of State.

Significance of the Revolt

•  The Revolt of 1857 showcased complete cooperation between Hindus and Muslims at all levels—among the people, soldiers, and leaders.
• This unity was evident in the spontaneous recognition of the last Mughal king, Bahadur Shah Zafar, as the leader of the country.
• The unity symbolized Hindu-Muslim collaboration at the national level, representing a significant aspect of political unity.
• Immediate bans on cow slaughter were implemented in areas where the revolt succeeded. Leadership roles were equally represented by Hindus and Muslims; for example, Nana Saheb had Azimullah, a Muslim, serving as an expert in political propaganda.

Impact of the Revolt/Mutiny

• The British Government realised problem. bolt was only a symptom of a deep-seated problem. The Policy of the Government of India underwent a drastic modification.

Political Impact

• The immediate consequence of the revolt was the dissolution of the English East India Company. The Government of India Act (1858) was swiftly passed in the British Parliament, effecting the transfer of power from the Company to the British Crown.
• According to the act, "India shall be governed by and in the name of the sovereign through the Secretary of State of India, assisted by a council of 15 members."
• A new declaration of policy towards India was articulated by the British Government, embodied in the Queen's Proclamation of 1858. This proclamation marked the initiation of a new approach towards the Indian States.

Queen's Proclamation 1858

•  The Proclamation pledged benevolence and religious toleration.
• It is committed to respecting the dignity and honor of the native princesses of India.
• Pardon and amnesty were extended to all those who were still in arms against the British Government, provided they were not found guilty of the murder of British subjects.

Government of India Act, 1858

•  Enacted in the aftermath of the Revolt of 1857, this significant Act, known as the Act for the Good Government of India, abolished the East India Company and transferred the power of government, territories, and revenue to the British Crown.

Some features of the Act are as follows: 

• It stipulated that India would henceforth be governed by and in the name of Her Majesty. The designation of the Governor-General of India was changed to the Viceroy of India, who became the direct representative of the British Crown in India.
• The Act put an end to the dual government by abolishing the Board of Control and the Court of Directors. Instead, it established a new office, the Secretary of State for India, endowed with complete authority and control over Indian administration. The Secretary of State, a member of the British Cabinet, was ultimately responsible to the British Parliament.

• The Act constituted the Secretary of State-in-Council as a corporate body, capable of suing and being sued in India and in England.

Reorganization of the Army

• The Army underwent reorganization after 1858, with an increased proportion of British troops in the Indian Army. British troops were primarily deployed for maintaining internal security, while Indian troops were trained and organized for overseas service, aiming to subjugate Asian and African territories for British Imperialism.
• Artillery was taken away from Indian hands, and all higher and sensitive appointments were reserved for the British. Indians were restricted from employment in the Army headquarters, except as clerks in non-military capacities.

• A notable distinction was made between martial and non-martial races, and a myth based on this distinction was propagated.
• The Sikhs and Gurkhas, who remained loyal to the British during the revolt, were categorized as martial races. In the aftermath of the revolt, significant changes were implemented in the judicial domain. New Civil and Criminal Procedure Codes were enacted.

Social and Cultural Impact

• The previous policy of actively promoting reforms was abandoned, as it was argued that this policy had contributed significantly to the events of 1857. The responsibility for reform was now entirely entrusted to the initiative of the Indian population, and this remained the fundamental policy of the Government of India for over half a century.
• The Muslim Renaissance, which had been gaining momentum in Delhi before 1857, suffered an irreparable setback.

Different Views Related to the Nature of Revolt

British Officials Associated with Revolt

Books related to the Revolt of 1857

Prelims Facts

•  When was the new Enfield rifle with greased cartridge introduced in the British Indian Army?

- December 1856 [BPSC (Pre) 2005]

•  Who called the Revolt of 1857 a conspiracy?

- Sir James Outram and W Taylor [BPSC (Pre) 1995]

•  The Statement 'the so-called first national war of independence was neither first nor national, nor a war of independence is associated with

- RC Majumdar (UPPSC (Mains) 2010)

• Who termed the uprising of 1857 as the first War of independence?

- VD Savarkar (UPPSC (Mains) 2015]

• Who was the official historian of the Indian freedom struggle?

- SN Sen (UPPSC 2010

•  What was the symbol of the 1857 independence struggle?

- Lotus and Chapatis [MPPSC (Pre) 1990

•  In the middle of the 19th century, Indian nationalism was in its embryonic stage. Historians who believe in this fact were

- DR. RC Majumdar and Dr. SN Sen (MPPSC (Pre) 2021)

• Who was the bitterest enemy of the British during the Revolt of 1857?

- Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah (BPSC (Pre) 2001

• What is the name of the birthplace of Maharani Lakshmibai, the heroine of the 1857 freedom struggle?

- Varanasi [BPSC (Pre) 2015

•  Where is the situated?

- mharani Laxmibai Gwalior (MPPSC (Pre) 2013

• With who? did Maharani Lakshmibai have combat in last battle?

- Hugh Rose [MPPSC (Pre) 1992]

•  who spearheaded the Revolt of 1857 in Bihar?

- Kunwar Singh [BPSC (Pre) 2020]

• Who was the chief advisor of Nana Saheb?

- Azimullah Khan [UKPSC (Pre) 2012]

• Who was the leader of the 1857 struggle for freedom in Lucknow?

- Hazrat Mahal [BPSC (Pre) 2008, UPPSC (Pre) 2015]

• The real name of which leader of 1857 was Ram Chandra Pandurang'?

- Tatya Tope [UPPSC (Pre) 2011]

• Who was the leader of the revolution of 1857 in Assam?

- Diwan Maniram Dutta [UPPSC (Mains) 2007]

• Which Urdu poet witnessed the Revolt of 1857?

- Ghalib [BPSC (Pre) 2002]

• Which dynasty supported the British maximum during the 1857 freedom movement?

- Scindias of Gwalior [MPPSC (Pre) 2010]

Self Check 

1. Which of the following was not the reason for making the sepoys of the East India Company rebellious?

BPSC (Pre) 2018

(a) Efforts of the officers of the company to spread

Christianity.

(b) Order to the soldiers to travel on the ship.

(c) Withholding of allowance.

(d) Incapability of officers.

2. Which of the following statements about the first

Act of the Revolt of 1857 is/are true?

1. It occurred in Meerut when two sepoys stole a superior officer's rifle.
2. It began when the Rani of Jhansi declared war on the British.
3. It began when Mangal Pandey fired at a European officer in Meerut.
4. It began when Mangal Pandey fired at a European officer in Barrackpore.

Select the correct answer by using the codes given below.

(a) Only 2

(b) 1, 2 and 3

(c) Only 4

(d) l and 4

3. Which of the following brave from Bhopal led the main movement and sacrificed his life during the First Struggle for Independence in 1857?

MPPSC (Pre) 2019

(a) Fazil Mohammad Khan

(b) Sheikh Ramzan

(c) Dost Mohammad Khan

(d) Habibulla Khan

4. Which of the following persons had participated actively in the Revolt of 1857?

BPSC (Pre) 2020

(a) Nana Saheb (Kanpur)

(b) Begum Hazrat Mahal (Lucknow)

(c) Maulavi Ahmadullah (Faizabad)

(d) Begum Zeenat Mahal (Delhi)

(e) None of the above/More than one of the above

5. Who was the leader of the rebellion in Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh during 1857?UPPSC (Pre) 2023

(a) Nana Saheb

(b) Kunwar Singh

(d) Khan Bahadur Khan

(c) Hazarat Mahal

6. Which among the following British officers lost their lives at Lucknow?

UPPSC (Pre) 2008

1. General John Nicholson
2. General Neil
3. Major Havlock
4. Sir Henry Lawrence

Select the correct answer by using the codes given below.

(a) 1, 2 and 3

(b) 1, 3 and 4

(c) 2, 3 and 4

(d) All of these

7. In the middle of the 19th century, Indian nationalism was in its embryonic stage. Historians who believe in this fact were MPPSC (Pre) 2021

(a) Dr RC Majumdar and Dr SN Sen

(b) Sir James Outram and W Tailor

(c) TR Holmes and LER Reese

(d) Sir John Lawrence and Seeley

8. Which of the following statements are correct about the Revolt of 1857?

(a) It is carefully arranged by the Rajas, Nawabs, and Talugdars and there was a planned rebellion.

(b)Rumors and predictions had no role.

(c) Rebellious declarations ine posT made repeated of their caste (religion) and creed.

appeals to all sections of the population, regardless

(d) The British were successful in controlling the rebels quickly and easily.

9. Which of the following groups did not participate in the Revolt of 1857?

BPSC (Pre) 1995

1. Agricultural Labour
2. Sahukars
3. Farmers
4. Landlords

Select the correct answer from the codes given below.

(a) Only 1

(b) 1 and 2

(c) Only 2

(d) 2 and 4

10. Which one of the following conceptions is true about the Revolt of 1857?

UPPSC (Mains) 2010

(a) Indian historians have described it as an Indian Mutiny.

(b) British historians have described it as a war of independence.

(c) It gave a death blow to the system of East India any's rule in India.

(d) It was for the improvement of the administrative machinery in India.

11. What was/were the object/objects of Queen

Victoria's Proclamation (1858)?

IAS (Pre) 2014

1. To disclaim any intention to annex the Indian States.
2. To place the Indian administration under the British Crown.
3. To regulate East India Company's trade with India.

Select the correct answer by using the codes given below.

(a) 1 and 2

(b) Only 2

(c) 1 and 3

(d) All of these

Know Right Answer

1 (d)

2 (c)

3 (a)

4 (c)

5 (d)

6 (c)

7 (a)

8 (c)

9 (d)

10 (c)

11 (a)