• The decline and disintegration of the Gupta dynasty, the political power centre of Northern India indulged in 'continuous clashing kingdoms' and each kingdom tried to become a sovereign power.
• Among these, King Harsha became the prominent one, who not only united the whole of North India but also promoted art and culture during this period.
• In the 6th century AD, after the Gupta empire fell apart, Northern India slowly broke into smaller kingdoms that kept fighting with each other.

• The Maukharis, for instance, controlled the region of Western Uttar Pradesh with their capital at Kanyakubja (modern-day Kannauj) and even conquered a part of Magadha. 
• Powerful rulers like Ishanavarmana and his son Sarvavarmana held the title of Maharajadhiraja. 
• A clay seal with "Mokhalis" (Maukharis) written in Brahmi script in Mauryan style exists. 
• Historical information about the Maukharis is found in their inscriptions, coins, Banabhatta's Harshacharita, and the Buddhist text Aryamanjushrimulakalpa written in the 6th century AD.
• The first three rulers of the Maukhari dynasty were Harivarmana, Adityavarmana, and Ishanavarmana, respectively.

Ishanavarmana:

• The Asirgarh Copper Plate Inscription, found in Nimar district in Madhya Pradesh, states that Ishanavarmana adopted the title of Maharajadhiraja as he bravely fought and halted the advance of the Hunas.
• He was a great supporter of education, a courageous warrior, and a learned individual. After Ishanavarmana's passing, several kings came to power, and Grihavarmana was the last ruler of this dynasty.

The Maitrakas:

• The Maitraka dynasty ruled over modern-day Gujarat in Western India from AD 470 to 776, with their capital at Vallabhi.
• Bhatarka, a Military Governor of Saurashtra under the Gupta empire, founded the Maitraka dynasty.
• Major rulers of this dynasty include Bhatarka, Dharasena I, Dronasingha, Dhruvasena I, and Dhruvasena Baladitya.

Bhatarka (AD 470-492):

• The legends on all Vallabhi coins are marked with Sri-Bhatarka, known only from the copperplate inscriptions of descendants.
• Vallabhi was a significant center of Jaina learning, including Buddhism, when visited by the Chinese traveler I-Tsing.

Dharasena I (AD 493-499):

• Bhatarka's eldest son, Dharasena I, maintained a marriage alliance with Harisena, the Vakataka king.

Dronasingha (AD 499-519):

• The younger brother of Dharasena I, declared himself Maharaja, and a significant battle between the Guptas and the Maitrakas took place during his reign.
• The Eran Stone Pillar Inscription mentions this battle, and the Hun king Toramana invaded Malwa during Dronasingha's time.

Dhruvasena I (AD 519-549):

• The third son of Bhatarka, the younger brother of Dronasingha, he reigned from AD 519 to 549.
• Yashodharman of Malwa defeated Harisena of the Vakataka dynasty and the Huna king Mihirakula during Dhruvasena I's rule.
• The Third Jain Council at Vallabhi was held during his reign.

Dhruvasena Baladitya (AD 627-641):

• The last great ruler, also known as Baladitya, was well-versed in grammar, science, and polity.
• Hiuen-Tsang mentioned Dhruvasena Baladitya marrying the daughter of Harshavardhana of Kannauj and attending Harsha's assembly at Prayag.
• Dhruvasena Baladitya made grants to Buddhist Viharas and Hindu temples, using the title of Paramamaheshwara, and renewed the grant to the Kottammhikadevi Hindu temple by his ancestor Dronasimha.

The Gaudas

• The most powerful ruler of the Gauda dynasty was King Shashanka. Shashanka is often credited with establishing the first separate political entity in a unified Bengal called Gauda.
• He ruled during the seventh century, approximately from AD 590 to 625, with his capital at Karnasubarna in West Bengal.
• However, Shashanka is known for his oppressive acts against Buddhism, such as cutting off the Mahabodhi tree at Bodh Gaya, where the Buddha found enlightenment.

The Hunas

• The Huna tribes, a group of Central Asian tribes, entered the Indian subcontinent through the Khyber Pass at the end of the fifth or early sixth century. 
• They gained supremacy over the entire Northern and Western parts of India, including NWFP, Kashmir, Punjab, and Western India.
• Skandagupta of the Gupta dynasty was the first Indian ruler to defeat them around AD 460.
• When the Gupta empire disintegrated, the Hunas invaded again under their ruler Toramana, succeeded by his ambitious son Mihirakula in AD 515.
• The Hunas were eventually absorbed into Indian society, and some historians suggest that the Rajputs may have originated from the Scythian or Huna lineage.

Eran Stone Boar Inscription

• The Eran Stone Boar Inscription of Toramana, discovered in Eran, Madhya Pradesh, is carved on the neck of a freestanding 11-foot-high red sandstone Varaha statue from the sixth century. 
• The inscription, in Sanskrit and Brahmi script, names King Toramana as the ruler of the Earth. The boar represents the God Varaha, an avatar of Vishnu.

The Pushyabhutis

The Pushyabhuti dynasty, also known as the Vardhana dynasty, rose to prominence after the decline of the Gupta empire in North India. 

• Pushyabhuti, who served as the Military General under the Gupta dynasty, is considered the founder of this dynasty. 
• Prabhakarvardhana, the fourth king, strengthened the dynasty, succeeded by his elder son Rajyavardhana. 
• After Rajyavardhana's death, Harshavardhana, at the age of 16, became the undisputed ruler of Thaneshwar in modern-day Haryana.

Harshavardhana (AD 606-647)

• Sources like the Harshacharita written by Banabhatta and the travel accounts of Hiuen Tsang provide insights into Harsha's reign. 
• Harsha, of the Vaishya caste, became the most powerful ruler of North India after driving out Shashanka from Kannauj. 
• He made Kannauj the new capital. The dramas written by Harsha, including Ratnavali, Nagananda, and Priyadarshika, as well as various inscriptions, contribute valuable information about his rule.
• Shashanka, the ruler of Gauda, killed Grahavarmana, the Maukhari ruler, with the help of Devagupta and imprisoned Grahavarmana's wife, Rajyasri, who was also Harsha's sister. Later, Rajyavardhana, Harsha's elder brother, killed Devagupta, but Shashanka assassinated Rajyavardhana in AD 606.
• Upon hearing about his brother's death, Harshavardhana took the throne in AD 606 and sought revenge for his brother's death and the release of his sister. This marked the beginning of the Harsha era.

Harshavardhana's Conquests

• Harsha is said to have gained control over five regions: Odisha, Gauda, Mithila, Kanyakubja, and Svarstha (Punjab). He defeated Dhruvasena II Baladitya, the Maitraka ruler of Vallabhi (Gujarat).
• One significant military campaign of Harsha was against the Western Chalukya ruler Pulakesin II. 
• Pulakesin II's Aihole Inscription mentions his victory over Harsha, who then assumed the title Sakalauttara Paramesvara. Hiuen-Tsang's accounts also confirm Pulakesin's victory over Harsha.
• Nepal acknowledged Harsha's suzerainty, and he extended his control over Kashmir, with its ruler sending tributes to him. Harsha maintained friendly relations with Bhaskaravarman, the ruler of Assam. His last successful military campaign was against the kingdom of Kalinga in Odisha.

Harsha's Administration

• Harsha moved his capital from Thaneshwar to Kanshu.
• He governed his empire along the lines of the Guptas, but his administration became more feudal and decentralized.
•  In the post-Harsha period, a prevalent bill of exchange known as the Hundi system existed.
• The Harsha empire was divided into provinces called Bhuktis, further subdivided into Visayas (Districts), and the Visayas were divided into Pathaks and villages or grama.

Officials in the Harsha Administration

Military Administration Under Harsha

•  Harsha's army consists of elephants, infantry, and cavalry. Ordinary soldiers were called Bhatas and Chatas.
• Cavalry officers were known as Brihadisvaras and infantry officers as Baladhikritas and Mahabaladhikritas

Society Under Harsha

• During Harsha's time, the Varnashrama dharma, a social order based on caste and life stages, became dominant.
• Various sub-castes known as Varnasamskaras were present. Unfortunately, the status of women declined further.
• The practice of Svayamvara, where women could choose their husbands, decreased, and widows were not allowed to remarry. 
• The dowry system became common, and there were few instances of Sati.
• According to Hiuen-Tsang, the occupational divisions of society continued as in the Gupta period.
• The use of onion and garlic (considered tamsic aahaar) was not common among higher caste people.
• The positions of peasants and agriculturists declined, burdened by taxes and forced labor.

Religious Policy of Harsha

• Harsha, primarily a worshipper of Lord Shiva, showed tolerance toward other religions. 
• In his later life, he became a great supporter of Buddhism. 
• He granted land to priests of both Hindu and Buddhist religions.
• Harsha organized grand assemblies at Kannauj and Allahabad to promote Mahayana Buddhism.

Two Assemblies

Kannauj 

• The Kannauj assembly gathered 20 kings, 4000 Buddhist monks, 3000 Brahmins, Nirgranthas (Jains), and 1000 scholars from all over India, presided over by Hiuen Tsang. Discussions on Mahayana Buddhism topics took place for three weeks, significantly boosting Mahayana Buddhism. 

Allahabad

• The Allahabad assembly was a quinquennial event held every five years, lasting 75 days. It included public worship of Buddha, Sun, and Shiva, with gifts distributed to about 50 lakh persons of all faiths.

Education and Learning Under Harsha

• Harsha invited Hiuen Tsang to witness his 6th quinquennial distribution of alms and gifts at Prayag. According to Hiuen Tsang, Harsha gave away everything in the royal treasury and became a monk.
• Harsha, a literature enthusiast, wrote three dramas and supported scholars like Banabhatta, Haridatta, and Jayasena. Hiuen Tsang wrote Si-Yu-Ki, and his biography was penned by Hui-li.

Various Literary Works

Economy Under Harsha

• During Harsha's time, the king didn't directly control the money the kingdom earned. Instead, people were paid with portions of the land's revenue.
•  As more people received these grants, more land ended up in their hands.
• Officers who got a lot of land grants started acting like they were independent rulers, becoming less dependent on the king.

The decline of the Empire

• Feudal officers were in charge of collecting revenue, and they divided it between themselves and the king. When Harsha died in AD 648, his dynasty declined quickly, and India became politically confused once again. This confusion continued until the eighth century when the Gurjara-Pratiharas and the Palas emerged as powerful forces in Northern India.

Age of Three Empires

• After Harsha's death, Northern India lost its unity, and many small regional powers began competing for political control. This marked the beginning of a period known as the "Age of Three Empires."

• Long ago, three kingdoms in North India, the Palas, Gurjara-Pratiharas, and Rashtrakutas, which were always fighting each other to become the most powerful in the Gangetic region. This ongoing battle is known as the Tripartite Struggle.

The Tripartite Struggle

• The Tripartite Struggle took place in the eighth century, and it was a competition among these three major empires to control Kannauj. Kannauj was seen as a symbol of authority in North India since the time of Harsha.
• The main goal of the struggle was to gain control over Kannauj, also known as Kanyakubja, and to dominate the upper Gangetic valley. This region was important for its valuable resources in trade and agriculture.

The Pala Empire

• After King Sashanka died in the year 637, there was a lot of confusion and unrest in the Bengal region. It faced attacks from Yashovarmana of Kannauj, Lalitaditya of Kashmir, and even the Chola army. However, in the eighth century, a person named Gopala established the Pala dynasty.
• The Palas brought peace and prosperity to Bengal after many years of fighting among different groups. The Pala kings mainly followed Buddhism, and under their rule, the Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism thrived. They were known for building Buddhist Viharas and temples in the eastern parts of India.

The important leaders of the Pala Empire were:

Gopala (AD 750-770):

• The founder of the Pala dynasty.
• He took charge after displacing the later Guptas of Magadha and Khadga dynasty of Eastern Bengal.
• A Kshatriya by birth, he was elected by the people of the region, according to historical records.
• Followed Buddhism and built the famous monastery at Odantapuri.

Dharmapala (AD 770-810):

• Under his rule, the Pala Empire expanded, and the Tripartite struggle began.
• Conquered large parts of Northern India, but faced defeats by the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas.
• Established the Vikramshila monastery and the Somapuri monastery, both centers of learning.
• Renowned Buddhist scholar Santarakshita belonged to his reign.

Devapala (AD 810-850):

• Son of Dharmapala and the next ruler.
• Extended the Pala empire to include Assam, parts of Utkala, and Nepal.
• Defeated the Hunas, Gurjaras, and the Dravidas.
• Supported Buddhism and granted land to Nalanda University.

Mahipala (AD 978-1028):

• Revived the Pala dynasty in the late tenth century.
• Defended Bengal and Bihar against Chola invasions but was eventually defeated.
• Restored strength to the empire and annexed Northern and Western Bengal and Northern and Southern Bihar.

Ramapala (AD 1075-1126):

• The last great king of the Pala dynasty.
• Tried to revive the dynasty in the 11th century, ruling from the new capital at Ramavati.
• Gained control of Kamarupa and Kalinga but faced decline after his death.

Madanapala (AD 1144-1162):

• Expelled by Vijayasena of the Sena dynasty, leading to the establishment of the Sena dynasty in Northern Bengal.

Administration Under Pala Kingdom:

• The Pala dynasty followed a monarchy system with the king holding central power.
• Administration was organized into Bhuktis (Provinces), further divided into Vishayas (Divisions) and Mandalas (Districts). Smaller units included Khandala, Bhaga, Avritti, Chaturaka, and Pattaka.

Military Administration Under Palas:

• The Mahasenapati (Commander-in-Chief) held the highest military position.
• The Palas were known for recruiting mercenary soldiers.
• The Rashtrakutas excelled in the infantry, Gurjara-Pratiharas in the cavalry, and Palas in the largest elephant force.

Religious Life of Palas:

• Pala kings were patrons of Mahayana Buddhism.
• Gopala built the renowned monastery at Odantapuri.
• Dharmapala made the Buddhist philosopher Haribhadra his spiritual preceptor.
• Vikramashila and Somapura Mahavihara were established.
• Devapala restored Somapura Mahavihara and enlarged existing structures.
• Mahipala I repaired sacred structures at Sarnath, Nalanda, and Bodh Gaya.
• The Palas supported Shaiva ascetics and constructed images of Vishnu, Shiva, and Saraswati.
• Islam first appeared in Bengal during the Pala reign due to flourishing trade with the Middle East.

Education Under Palash

• The Palas developed the Buddhist centers of Carnings, such as the Vikramashila and the Nalanda universities.
• Nalanda, considered one of the first great Nalansities in recorded history, reached its height due to the Palas' patronage. Noted Buddhist scholars from the Pala period were Atisha Santaraksita. Saraha and Tilopa The Palas patronized several Sanskrit scholars and the Gauda Riti style of composition developed during the Pala rule. 
• Some of the Pala period literatures are as follows 
• Agama Shastra by Gaudapada, Nyaya Kundali by Sridhar Bhatta;  Karmanushthan Paddhati by Bhatta Bhavadeva.
• A Bhav of the proto-Bengali language can be seen as A for Charyapadas composed during the Pala rule.

Works on Medicine

• Chikitsa Bhanumati, Samgraha, Ayurveda Dipika,
• Shabda Chandrika, and Dravya Gunasangraha by Chakrapani Datta
• Shabda-Pradipa, Vrikkhayurveda, and Lohpaddhati by Sureshwara
• Chikitsa Sarsamgraha by Vangasena
• Sushrata by Gadadhara Vaidya
• Dayabhaga, Vyavohara Matrika and Kalaviveka by Jimutavahana

Art and Architecture Under Palas

• The Pala School of Sculptural Art is recognized as a distinct phase of the Indian art which was highly influenced by the Gupta art. However, the style of sculpture has a distinctive style.
• The Deity sculpture figures of Palas became more rigid in posture, very often standing with straight legs close together and figures were often heavily loaded with jewelry.
• They very often have multiple arms, a convention allowing them to hold many attributes and display mudras. The quality of the stone carving is generally very high, with precise detail.
• Several notable creations from the Pala period include a basalt statue of A and Kartikeya, alongside Ganesh. 
• Carved Shankhas have been discovered at various locations, along with sculptures depicting the Varaha avatar of Lord Vishnu and the Khasarpana Lokesvara from Nalanda.
• The Palas were responsible for constructing numerous Buddhist monasteries, with the Somapura Mahavihara in Paharpur, Bangladesh, being recognized as a World Heritage Site.
•  This vast complex spans 21 acres, featuring 177 cells, numerous stupas, temples, and ancillary structures.
• The Pala rulers made significant contributions to miniature painting in India, particularly in illustrating religious texts on Buddhism. 
• Manuscripts, written on palm leaves, depict scenes from the life of Buddha and various gods and goddesses of Mahayana sects.
• Meanwhile, wall paintings have been discovered in Saradh and Sarai-Sthal in the Nalanda district, showcasing the impact of tantricism on Pala art.

The decline of the Pala Kingdom

• The decline of the Pala Kingdom occurred abruptly due to the destruction of Buddhist monasteries by Muslim invaders in the first half of the 13th century. Despite this, some monks and artists escaped to Nepal, contributing to the reinforcement of existing art traditions in the region.
• Ramapala, the last strong Pala ruler, faced challenges during his son Kumarapala's reign, marked by rebellions that diverted attention from art.

The Sena family

• The Sena family ruled Bengal after the Palasnost Senas called himself Brahma Kshatriya
• The title Brahma Kshatriya shows that Hemantsena (AD 1070-1096) was a Brahmin, but his successors called themselves Kshatriyas

Vijaya Sena

• Vijaya Sena, a significant ruler of the Sena dynasty, achieved victories over various regions and established two capitals, Vijayapuri in West Bengal and Vikaramapura in East Bengal.
• Ballal Sena, his successor, maintained a peaceful reign, focusing on scholarly pursuits and social movements like Kulinism.

Ballal Sena (AD 1158-1178)

•  His reign was generally peaceful and he maintained intact dominion inherited from his father. He was a great scholar. He wrote four works of which two are extant, the Danasagara (a work on Smriti) and the Adbhutasagara (a work on astronomy).
• The work of Adbhutasagara was finally completed by his son Lakshmana Sena. Ballal Sena is credited with an important social movement known as Kulinism by which the nobility of birth and purity of blood were carefully protected.
• According to literary texts Laghubharata and Ballalacharita, Mithila was included in Ballal Sena's kingdom as his fifth province, the other four being Radha, Varendra, Vagdi, and Vanga.

Lakshmana Sena

• Lakshmana Sena, who succeeded Ballal Sena, faced challenges from the Turkish invader Mohammed bin Bakhtiyar Khilji, resulting in the occupation of the Sena capital at Nadia. 
• Despite this, his sons Vishvarupasena and Kesavasena continued to rule in East Bengal, with Lakshmana Sena being a devout follower of Vaishnavism.
•  The era produced notable poets like Jayadeva and Dhoyi, contributing to the cultural and literary landscape of the time.
• Halayudha, Govardhana (the author of Arya-Saptasati) Gita Govinda is considered to be the first book that popularized Krishna-Radha Bhakti in Bengal.

Gurjara-Pratiharas

• The Pratiharas, also known as the Gurjara Pratiharas, were the major dynasty of Northern India after the decline of the Pushyabhuti Dynasty. It first ruled from Ujjain and later from Kanyakubja (Kannauj) from the AD eighth century to the tenth century.
• Apart from their fierce involvement in the tripartite struggle, the Pratiharas were best known for their patronage of art, sculpture, and temple construction.
• The origins of the Gurjara-Pratiharas are still a matter of debate and mostly considered foreign people who gradually assimilated into Indian society.
• The Pratiharas, who derived their name from the word Pratihara (Sanskrit: "doorkeeper"), and the Gurjara-Pratiharas considered Lakshmana as their ancestor.

Major Rulers

Prominent leaders of the Gurjara-Pratiharas include:

Nagabhata I (AD 730-756)

• The inaugural significant ruler of the dynasty, he triumphed over the forces of Arab Caliphates and resisted the expansion of the Rashtrakutas.
• Establishing his capital at Avanti in Malwa, Nagabhata I effectively checked the Arab advancement.
• The Gwalior inscription highlights that "Gurjara-Pratihara emperor Nagabhata crushed the large army of the powerful Mlechcha king."

Vatsaraja (AD 775-800)

• Successfully overcoming the Bhandi or Bhatti clan, Vatsaraja extended his influence over most of Central Rajasthan.
• He further secured victories against the Palas, consolidating his rule during his tenure.
• According to the Radhanpur Plate and Prithviraja Vijaya, Vatsaraja led an expedition against the Palas under Dharmapala of Bengal. Additionally, he defeated Dantidurga, the Rashtrakuta king, gaining control over Kannauj. However, around AD 800, the Rashtrakuta ruler Dhruva triumphed over Vatsaraja.

Nagabhata II (AD 800-833)

• Vatsaraja's son, Nagabhata II, sought to consolidate the empire. He subdued the kingdoms of Sindh (present-day Pakistan) and later defeated the Palas. However, he engaged in conflict with the Nagabhutas over control of Gujarat and was ultimately defeated by the Rashtrakuta ruler Govinda III.

Mihira Bhoja I (AD 836-885)

• The grandson of Nagabhata II, Mihira Bhoja I ruled for nearly 50 years. He defeated the Palas and possibly the Rashtrakutas with the assistance of his Chedi and Guhila feudatories.

Mahendrapala I (AD 885-910)

• Maintaining the Pratihara empire, Mahendrapala I made new conquests in the Pala kingdoms.

Mahipala I (AD 912-944)

• Mahendrapala I's death triggered a civil war between his son Mahipala and half-brother Bhoja II. Mahipala secured the throne but was defeated by the Rashtrakutas. This defeat allowed the Palas to regain some of their former territories from the Pratiharas, and several feudatories of the empire declared their independence.

Rajyapala

• When Mahmud of Ghazni stormed Kannauj, Rajyapala was forced to leave the battle and was subsequently killed by Vidyadhar Chandela.

Administration Under Gurjara-Pratiharas

• In the realm of administration, the Gurjara-Pratihara adopted the administrative model of the Guptas and Harshavardhana. 
• The king served as the supreme authority, supported by a diverse array of ministers and officials.
• Administrative regions were directly overseen by the Centre, comprising provinces (bhukti) governed by a Governor (Uparika) and districts (Mandala/Vishaya) overseen by a District Head (Vishayapati).

Military Administration Under Gurjara-Pratiharas

• Amidst continuous warfare, highlighting the significance of coercive power, the Pratiharas' military prowess was exemplified by their well-known cavalry, Vi sabat. 
• Horses, crucial components imported from Central Asia and Arabia, played a vital role in Indian trade during this period. 
• According to Al-Masudi, the army boasted four divisions, each numbering between 7 million to 9 million.

Architecture Under Gurjara-Pratiharas

• Renowned for their intricate stone-made temple architecture, the Gurjara-Pratiharas left a lasting legacy with finely chiseled sculptures and carved panels. 
• The Khajuraho Temple, a supreme example of Nagara-style temple construction in India, stands as a testament to their architectural prowess.
•  Notable temples, including the Bateshwar Group in Morena, Madhya Pradesh, and the Mahavira Temple built by King Vatsaraja in AD 783, showcase their dedication to Shiva, Vishnu, and Shakti.

Literary Work

• Rajashekhara, a distinguished Sanskrit poet, dramatist, and critic, served as the Gurjara Pratiharas' court poet. Between AD 880 and AD 920, he authored the Kavyamimasa, a practical guide for poets. His renowned play, Karpuramanjari, written in Maharashtrian Prakrit, adds to his literary contributions.

The decline of the Gurjara-Pratihara Kingdom

• Successive defeats and setbacks marked the decline of the Gurjara-Pratiharas. The Rashtrakutas, particularly under Indra III, inflicted severe blows in the early AD tenth century, leading to the devastation of Kanyakubja. Despite lingering existence, the Gurjara-Pratihara rule succumbed in the early AD 11th century, conquered by the Ghaznavids.

Rashtrakutas: Rise and Achievements

• The period between AD 753-975 witnessed the ascendancy of the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan.
• The literal meaning of Rashtrakuta is the chief of a Rashtra. Originally feudatories of the Chalukyas, they triumphed over the Palas and Pratiharas in the tripartite struggle. 
• Their rule also saw engagements against the Pallavas of Kanchi, the Pandyas of Madurai, and the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. Notably liberal, they allowed Arab merchants to construct mosques during their reign, adding to their distinctive legacy. The origins of the Rashtrakuta dynasty remain an enigma in Indian history.
• Tracing their roots back to the period of Mauryan emperor Ashoka the Great, when they were initially small clan heads across India, the Rashtrakutas witnessed their ascent under Dantidurga (also known as Dantivarman). 
• A feudatory of the Badami Chalukyas, Dantidurga defeated King Kirtivarman II in AD 753, marking the establishment of the Rashtrakuta empire. 

Key rulers during this era include:

Dantidurga (AD 735-756)

• Founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
• Annexed the Chalukya kingdom, becoming the dominant power in the Deccan.
• Defeated the Gurjaras and captured Malwa.

Krishna I (AD 756-774)

• Expanded the kingdom and erected the Kailasa Temple at Ellora.
• Strengthened Rashtrakuta's rule during his reign.

Dhruva Dharavarsha (AD 780-793)

• Extended the empire and earned the reputation of the greatest warrior in the Rashtrakuta dynasty.

Govinda III (AD 793-814)

• Militarily powerful emperor who expanded the kingdom from Kannauj to Cape Comorin and from Banaras to Bengal.
• Triumphed in the tripartite struggle, defeating Dharmapala and Nagabhata.
• Conducted expeditions to the South, where Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras paid tribute.

Amoghavarsha I (AD 814-878)

• Built the Rashtrakuta capital, Malkhed or Manyakheda.
• Fostered peace with neighbors, including the Eastern Chalukyas, the Ganga, and the Pallavas.
• Renowned for patronizing art and literature, and authored the Kannada work on poetics, Kavirajamarga.

Indra

• He was the grandson of Amoghavarsha I. He defeated Mahipala (Pratihara king) and captured Kannauuj.

Krishna III (AD 934-966)

• Known for military expeditions against the Cholas, including the capture of Tanjore.
• Held sway over the Tondaimandalam region.
• Witnessed the decline of Rashtrakuta's power after his reign.

Indra IV

• The last emperor of the Rashtrakuta dynasty who practiced Sallekhana, fasting unto death, at Shravanabelagola.

Administration and Economy Under Rashtrakutas

• The Rashtrakuta kingdom comprised Mandala/Rashtras (provinces) ruled by a Rashtrapathi or the emperor.
• Sixteen Rashtras existed under Amoghavarsha I's rule, each overseen by a Vishayapathi at the district level.
• The Nadu, the next division, was administered by the Nadugowda or Nadugavunda.
• The lowest division was the Grama or village, supervised by a Gramapathi or Prabhu Gavunda.

Economy Under Rashtrakutas

• The Rashtrakutas issued coins, including Suvarna, Drammas (silver), and gold coins of various weights.
• Coin minting took place in an Akkashale, contributing to the economic stability of the dynasty.
• Southern Gujarat, Khandesh, and Berar were pivotal regions in the Rashtrakuta domain, with significant textile industries flourishing in key centers such as Gujarat, Ujjain, Paithan, and Tagara. The production of muslin cloth thrived in locations like Paithan and Warangal. Controlling the majority of the Western seaboard, the Rashtrakuta empire leveraged its maritime trade, deriving substantial income from the renowned port of Bharuch, a global trading hub during that era.

Society Under Rashtrakutas

• Brahmins held the highest societal status in Rashtrakuta society, surpassed only by Kshatriyas in the Sat-Kshatriya sub-caste, considered noble Kshatriyas.
• The social structure extended beyond the commonly recognized four castes, as documented by Al-Biruni, who listed sixteen castes, incorporating Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. Distinct castes, such as the Zakaya or Lahud, specialized in dance and acrobatics, while the Antyajas caste fulfilled various menial services for the affluent. 
• Notably, capital punishment, though prevalent, was not administered to royal Kshatriya sub-castes or Brahmins found guilty of severe crimes.
• Within the general populace, men typically adorned two simple pieces of cloth – a loose upper garment and a lower garment worn like a dhoti. The privilege of wearing turbans was reserved exclusively for kings.

Literature During Rashtrakuta Rule

• The Rashtrakuta era saw the ascendance of the Kannada language as a prominent literary medium, marking a departure from the classical Prakrit and Sanskrit traditions.
• Notable scholar Mahaviracharya contributed to the court of King Amoghavarsha I, particularly in the realm of pure mathematics.
• Kavirajamarga, authored in 850 AD by King Amoghavarsha I, stands as the earliest known book on rhetoric and poetics in the Kannada language.
• Adikavi Pampa, a prominent Jain writer, earned acclaim for his work Adipurana, penned in AD 941. This literary masterpiece, composed in the Champu style (a blend of prose and verse), narrates the life history of the first Jain Tirthankara, Rishabhadeva.

Architecture During Rashtrakuta Rule

• The Rashtrakuta architectural legacy in the Deccan manifests in two distinctive schools: one centered around Ellora, Badami, and Aihole, and the other at Pattadakal and Sirval near Gulbarga.
• The Rashtrakutas left an indelible mark on art and architecture, evident in the magnificent rock-cut cave temples at Ellora and Elephanta in present-day Maharashtra.
• Notably, Amoghavarsha I's advocacy of Jainism is reflected in the five Jain cave temples at Ellora attributed to his reign.
• A pinnacle of Rashtrakuta's architectural prowess is the monolithic Kailashnath Temple at Ellora, constructed under Krishna I. This temple features remarkable sculptures depicting Hindu mythology, including figures such as Ravana, Shiva, and Parvati, along with intricately painted ceilings.
• In Karnataka, the renowned temples of the Rashtrakuta dynasty include the Kashivishvanatha Temple and the Jain Narayana Temple at Pattadakal, designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Decline of the Empires

• In AD 972, during the rule of Amoghavarsha, the Paramara King Siyaka Harsha launched an attack on the Rashtrakuta empire, pillaging Manyakheta, its capital. This incursion significantly tarnished the empire's reputation, precipitating its gradual decline over time.

Rajput Kingdoms:

• The era spanning from the 7th to the 12th century marked the dominance of the Rajputs, which persisted until the Turko-Muslim conquests in the 12th century. Following the decline of the Pratiharas of Kannauj, several major Rajput dynasties emerged:

The Tomars of Delhi:

• The Tomars held sway over parts of Delhi and Haryana from AD 736 to 1152. Initially, they served as vassals to the Gurjara-Pratiharas, with their capital located at Anangpur. Claiming descent from the Chandravanshi dynasty, the Tomar dynasty was founded by Anangapala I in the 8th century. 
• Anangapala II, credited with establishing Delhi in the 11th century, built the capital Lal Kot in AD 1152, around the Qutub Minar complex. Anangapala Tomar II's coins bore the title of Shri Samanta Deva, and he constructed the Iron pillar at Mehrauli. 

Chauhans of Ajmer:

• The Chauhans trace their origin to the Chahamanas of Shakambari around the 6th century. In the mid-12th century, the Chauhans conquered Delhi, and the Tomars became their feudatories. They held dominion over South-Eastern Rajasthan. 
• Vishaladeva founded the Chauhan dynasty, and Vigraharaja IV emerged as a prominent monarch. Vigraharaja IV expelled the Tomars from Delhi and gained control of Eastern Punjab. During the reign of the illustrious king Bhoja, conflicts arose with the Malwa Paramars.
• Harikeli Nataka, a renowned play, was initiated by Hanim, who later erected a structure that was transformed into the Adhai-Din-Ka-Jhonpra. 
• In the 12th century, Ajayaraja II shifted the capital of the kingdom to Ajayameru, now known as Ajmer. Consequently, the Chahamana rulers gained the epithet Chauhans of Ajmer. Ajayaraja II successfully captured Ujjain from the Paramaras, and his successor Arnoraja constructed the Varaha Temple at Pushkar.
• Prithviraj Chauhan, a pivotal ruler of this dynasty, wed Samyukta, the daughter of Jayachandra, Prithviraj's rival. Jayachandra, in a fateful move, invited Muhammad Ghori to invade India or confront Prithviraj. Unfortunately, with Prithviraj's demise, the era of Rajput glory reached its conclusion. 

The Gahadavalas of Varanasi

• The Gahadavalas of Varanasi held sway over North India from the mid-11th century to the mid-13th century, with Varanasi as their capital in the Gangetic plains. Chandradeva, an illustrious ruler, established himself in Kannauj and declared it the capital. Between AD 1114 and 1155, the Gahadavala kingdom flourished under the rule of Govindachandra. However, in 1194, Govindachandra's grandson Jayachandra suffered defeat at the hands of the Ghurids.

Salankis (chalukya Dynasty)

• The Solankis, a dynasty founded by Mularaja I, governed the Gujarat region with Anhilwara as their capital. Mularaja I was a patron of Jainism and a devout follower of Lord Shiva. Bhimadeva I, who ruled from AD 1021-1063, witnessed the infamous plunder of the Somnath Temple by Mahmud of Ghazni during his reign.
• The Dilwara Temple in Mount Abu was constructed in AD 1031 by Vimal Shah, the minister of the ruling monarch. The initiative to build the Rani-ka-Vav was also taken by the king's wife, Udaymati. Following the reign of Bhima I, his son Karna succeeded him. Karna later founded a city that is now recognized as Ahmedabad.
• In AD 1178, Bhimadeva II and Muladeva II achieved victory over Muhammad Ghori. Subsequently, the Solankis were ousted from power by the Waghelas.

The Paramaras

• The Paramaras of Malwa ascended to power on the remnants of the Pratihara empire in Kannauj. 
• Emerging from the Agnikund of Mount Abu, they ruled the Malwa region with their capital at Dharanagar. Initially, the early rulers were likely vassals of the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta. 
• Around AD 972, Siyaka sacked the Rashtrakuta capital, Manyakheta, and established the Paramaras as an independent power.
• The founder of the Paramara dynasty was Upendra or Krishnaraja. Raja Bhoja, the most significant ruler in this dynasty (AD 1018-1060), sought to rejuvenate Hindu society. 
• He actively resisted Muslim invasions and, in addition to being a skilled warrior, was a renowned scholar.
• Bhoja's notable contributions include the establishment of a Sanskrit college called Bhojshala in his capital and the authorship of renowned books such as Ayurveda Sangraha, Yukti Kalpataru, and Samranga Suthradhara (which focuses on architecture).
• Renowned for his building prowess, he is credited with the construction of 104 temples and the creation of the picturesque Bhojpur Lake.
• The dominance of the Paramara dynasty waned following the demise of Raja Bhoja.

The Chandellas

• The Chandella dynasty, hailing from Bundelkhand, was among the 36 Rajput clans. The realm expanded steadily under early kings like Jayashakti, reigning over the eastern part of Madhya Pradesh with Mohoba and Khajuraho as the capital. 
• Belonging to the Chandravanshi lineage of Rajputs, Yashovarman's conquest of Kalinjar hills elevated the Chandella kingdom's stature. He notably commissioned the Lakshmana Temple at Khajuraho.
• Dhanga, a significant ruler, assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja and distinguished himself in wars against Mahmud of Ghazni.
• Many of Khajuraho's temples were erected during his rule. The Chandella dynasty's final ruler, Parmal, succumbed to defeat at the hands of Prithviraj in AD 1182, leading to Qutb-ud-din Aibak's capture of Kalinjar in AD 1203. 
• Subsequently, the Chandellas faded into obscurity as Muslims seized control of Bundelkhand.
• Renowned for their architectural prowess, the Chandellas left an enduring legacy in Khajuraho, where a significant cluster of temples, constructed between AD 900-1150, still stands. The Kandariya Mahadeva Temple stands out for its artistic excellence, and Chandella architecture is hailed as a pinnacle achievement in Indian architecture.

Society under Rajput Kingdoms

• Under the Rajput kingdoms, society reflected chivalry and warrior ethos, with a commitment to protecting the vulnerable. While primarily followers of Hinduism, Rajputs also patronized Buddhism and Jainism. The administrative system was feudatory, with the kingdom divided into jagirs held by jagirdars.

Importance of Rajputs:

• The political prominence of the Rajputs dates back to the seventh century, and by approximately 800, Rajput dynasties held sway over Northern India. These numerous Rajput kingdoms played a crucial role in hindering complete Muslim dominance over Hindu India.

The Failure of the Rajput Kingdoms:

• The ongoing power struggle in North India led to conflicts among the Rajput kingdoms. Unfortunately, their lack of unity proved to be a significant factor in the success of invading forces such as the Ghurids and Ghaznavids. The invaders exploited the inter-caste conflicts among the Rajputs, taking advantage of their disunity.
• The Rajput military organization faced significant flaws. Relying on feudal lords' armies rather than maintaining a permanent army, they wielded weapons like spears and swords, ill-suited for long-range combat. In contrast, the Turkish invaders, proficient archers with disciplined cavalry, capitalized on these shortcomings.
• The Rajputs struggled to monitor the activities of neighboring ruling dynasties and remained oblivious to foreign movements. This lack of awareness made them vulnerable to external threats.
• In a further setback, the Rajputs often resorted to persuading local chiefs with offers of money and land, leading to internal discord. Foreign aggressors capitalized on these divisions, using them to their political advantage.

Prelims Facts

• The Chalukyan ruler Pulakeshin's victory over Harsha was in the year

-AD 618 [JPSC (Pre) 2016

• Who stopped Emperor Harsha's Southward March on the Narmada river?

- Pulakeshin II [IAS (Pre) 2003]

• In whose reign- period, the Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang visited India?

- Harsha (UPPSC (Pre) 1990, UPPSC (Mains) 2012)

• Who sent Hiuen Tsang as an emissary in the court of Harsha?

- Tai Tsung [UPPSC (Pre) 2007]

• The Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang studied at which university?

- Nalanda (UPPSC (Pre) 1995, BPSC (Pre) 2003]

• The ancient town of Taxila was located between which rivers?

-Indus and Jhelum JUPPSC (Pre) 1996, UKPSC (Mains) 2006)

•  The contemporary ruler of Kalhana, the author of Rajatarangini was.......

- Jai Singh (UPPSC (Pre) 2010)

• During the period of Harshavardhana, the field were watered by the pots of the ghati-yantra. This is known from the writings of

- Hiuen Tsang (JPSC (Pre) 2010)

•  ' Kuruspal Inscription' gives the information about which king?

Someshwara I [CGPSC (Pre) 2020

• The author of 'Lilavati Bhaskar II was a ............

- Mathematician [UKPSC (Pre) 2022

•  In Chalukyan period, the term 'Gadhaiya' denoted what?

- Coins [UKPSC (Pre) 2022)

• Emperor Harsha had sifted his capital from Thaneshwar to

- Kannauj (UPPSC (Pre) 1992

• In whose reign (Period) the Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang visited India

- Harsha [UPPSC (Pre) 2011)

•  Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang studied at the university of

- Nalanda [BPSC (Pre) 2008

• During Post Gupta period, main business centre was

- Kannauj (RAS/RTS (Pre) 1993

• The term Kaushey has been used for which item in Post Gupta period?

-Silk (LIPPSC (Pre) 2008

Self Check

1. The capital of Maukhari dynasty was 

CGRSC (Pre) 2012

(a) Thaneshwar

(b) Kannauj

(c) Purushpur

(d) None of these

2. Among the following rulers, who had defeated Harshavardhana?

UPPSC (Mains) 2016

(a) Kirtivarman II

(b) Vikramaditva II

(c) Pulakesin I

(d) Pulakesin II

3. Emperor Harsha's Southward march was stopped on the Narmada river by

IAS (Pre) 2003

(a) Pulakesin I

(b) Pulakesin II

(c) Vikramaditya I

(d) Vikramaditya I

4. From the decline of Guptas until the rise of Harshavardhana in the early seventh century,

which of the following kingdons were holding power in Northern India?

IAS (Pre) 2021

1. The Guptas of Magadha
2. The Paramaras of Malwa
3. The Pushyabhutis of Thaneshwar
4. The Maukharis of Kannauj
5. The Yadavas of Devagiri
6. The Maitrakas of Vallabhi

Select the correct answer by using the codes given below.

(a) 1, 2 and 5

(b) 1, 3, 4 and 6

(c) 2, 3 and 4

(d) 5 and 6

5. Which of the following phrases defines the nature of the Hundi' generally referred to in the sources of the post-Harsha period?

IAS (Pre) 2020

(a) An advisory issued by the king to his subordinates.

(b) A diary to be maintained for daily accounts.

(c) A bill of exchange.

(d) An order from the feudal lord to his subordinates.

6. The Chinese traveller (Hiuen-Tsang) who visited India recorded the general conditions and culture of India at that time. In this context, which of the following statements) is/are correct?

UPPSC (Pre) 2013

1. The roads and river-routes were completely immune from robbery.
2. As regards punishment for offences or deals by fire. water and poison were the instruments for determining the innocence or guilt of a person.
3. The tradesmen had to pay duties at ferries and barrier stations.

Select the correct answer by using the codes given below.

(a) Only 1

(c) 1 and 3

(b) 2 and 3

(d) All of these

7. Which of the following statements) is/are correct?

IAS (Pre) 2000, 04

1. The Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien attended the fourth Great Buddhist Council held by Kanishka.
2. The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang met Harsha and found him to be antagonistic to Buddhism.

Which of the statements) given above is/are correct?

(a) Only 1

(b) Only 2

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

8. Match the following.

MPSC (Pre) 2019

Codes

     A   B   C   D                                A   B   C   D

(a)  2   1   3    4                         (b)  2   1    4   3 

(c)  1   2    3   4                         (d)  4   3    1   2

9. Which of the following plays were written by Harshavardhana?

MPSC (Pre) 2017

1. Priyadarshika 
2. Ratanavali 
3. Nagananda

Codes

(a) Only 1

(b) 1 and 2

(c) 2 and 3

(d) All of these

10. Poet Bana was inhabitant of

BPSC (Pre) 1996

(a) Pataliputra

(b) Thaneshwar

(c) Bhojpur

(d) None of these

11. Match the items in List I with List II and select the correct answer from the codes given below.

      A   B   C   D                                A   B   C   D

(a)  1   4   2    3                         (b)   3   4    2   1 

(c)  4   3    2   1                         (d)   2   1    4   3

12. Harshavardhana organised two great religious conventions in

UP UDA/LDA (Pre) 2001

(a) Kannauj and Prayag 

(b) Prayag and Thaneshwar

(c) Thaneshwar and Vallabhi

(d) Vallabhi and Prayag

13. Sandhyakar Nandi was the court poet of the

WBCS (Pre) 2021

(a) Mauryas

(b) Senas

(c) Hussain Shahis

(d) Palas

14. Arrange the names of the following historical personalities in correct chronological order and select the correct answer from the codes given below.

UPPSC (Mains) 2017

1. Nagabhatta Il
2. Mahipala
3. Mahendrapala
4. Vatsaraja

Codes

(a) 2, 3, 1 and 4

(b) 4, 1, 3 and 2

(c) 1, 2, 3 and 4

(d) 3, 1, 4 and 2

15. The ruler of Suvarnabhumi, who founded a Buddhist monastery at Nalanda and requested Devapala through his ambassador to grant five villages for its maintenance was

BPSC (Pre) 2018

(a) Dharanindra

(b) Sengramadhananijaya

(c) Balaputradeva

(d) Chudamani Varman

16. Arrange the names of the following historical personalities in correct chronological order.

Select the correct answer from the codes given below.

UPPSC (Mains) 2017

1. Nagabhata Il
2. Mahipala
3. Mahendrapala
4. Vatsaraja

Codes

(a) 2,3, 1 and 4

(e) 1, 2, 3 and 4

(b) 4, 1, 3 and 2

(d) 3, 1, 4 and 2

17. Consider the following pairs.

UPPSC (Pre) 2022

            King                                      Dynasty

(a)       Nannuka               :                Chandela

(b)       Jayashakti             :               Paramara

(c)       Nagabhata 11        :               Gurjara-Pratihara

(d)       Bhoja                      :              Rashtrakuta

How many pairs given above are correctly matched?

(a) Only one pair

(b) Only two pairs

(c) Only three pairs

(d) All four pairs

18. Which among the following Rashtrakuta King defeated Pratihara ruler Nagabhata II?

UKPSC (Pre) 2022

(a) Dhruva

(c) Indra III

(b) Govinda III

(d) Krishna 111

19. Select the correct answer from the codes given below by combining the names of the following historical persons in chronological order.

UPPSC (Mains)

1. Nagabhata II
2. Mahipala 1
3. Mahendrapala
4. Vatsaraja

Codes

(а) 2, 3, 1, 4

(c) 1, 2, 3, 4

(b) 4. 1,3, 2 

(d) 3, 1,4, 2

20. Consider the following events in the history of India.

IAS (Pre) 2020

1. Rise of Pratiharas under King Bhoja.
2. Establishment of Pallava power under Mahendravarman I.
3. Establishment of Chola power by Parantaka 1.
4. Pala Dynasty founded by Gopala.

What is the correct chronological order of the above events starting from the earliest time? 

(a) 2, 1, 4, 3 

(b) 3, 1, 4, 2 

(c) 2, 4, 1,3

(d) 3, 4, 1, 2

21. Which of the following statements are correct?

MPPSC (Mains) 2015

1. The most outstanding cave of the Rashtrakuta period is the Kailash cave.
2. The Jain caves at Verul belong to the Digambar sect.
3. Many beautiful temples were built at Pattakadal, Badami and Ter during the Chalukyan period.
4. Trimurti idol sculpture in the Gharapuri caves is wel known sculpture.

Codes

(a) 1 and 2

(e) 2 and 3

(b) 1 and 3

(d) All of these

22. The famous Battle of Takkolam of South India was fought between

UPPSC (Pre) 2003

(a) Cholas and North Chalukyas

(b) Cholas and Rashtrakutas

(c) Cholas and Hoysalas

(d) Cholas and Pandyas

Know Right Answer

1. (b)
2. (d)
3. (b)
4. (b)
5. (c)
6. (b)
7. (d)
8. (a)
9. (d)
10. (d)
11. (c) 
12. (a)
13. (d)
14. (b)
15. (e)
16. (b)
17. (b)
18. (b)
19. (b)
20. (c)
21. (d)
22. (b)