The period before the 1857 Revolt witnessed various instances of people's opposition to British rule, which is often considered as the initial significant display of discontent against the British, who were represented by the East India Company's governance. However, prior to the 1857 revolt, numerous incidents indicated growing dissatisfaction and resentment towards the foreign administration. This discontent was evident through multiple instances of resistance by various groups of people across different regions in India.

People’s Resistance: Meaning

• Regarding the resistance of people against British rule, the term 'people' encompasses various segments of Indian society that were affected by foreign governance. This includes peasants, artisans, tribals, ruling classes (both active and dispossessed), military personnel (including those under the East India Company and former soldiers of Indian rulers), as well as religious leaders from Hindu and Muslim communities. These different groups fought to safeguard their respective interests, sometimes independently and sometimes collectively. Instances of resistance took place in different forms and locations. For instance, the protest in Benares in 1810 against a house tax imposed by the colonial government, the Surat riots in 1814 opposing the salt duty, and the uprising in Bareilly in 1816 against police and municipal taxes, exemplify urban movements where individuals from lower social strata such as artisans, small shopkeepers, and the urban poor joined forces with the wealthier urban gentry. Although the specific grievances varied among these resistance movements, they all converged with the common goal of ending British rule. According to historian Bipan Chandra, people's resistance can be broadly categorized into three forms: civil rebellions, tribal uprisings, and peasant movements. In order to provide a comprehensive study of people's resistance, military revolts involving Indians employed in the East India Company's forces have also been considered as a form of resistance.

Genesis of People’s Resistance

• In pre-colonial India, protests by the people against rulers and officials were not uncommon. Factors such as exorbitant land revenue demands by the State, corrupt practices, and the harsh attitudes of officials often served as triggers for such protests. However, the establishment of colonial rule and its policies had a significantly devastating impact on the Indian population as a whole. The colonial administration showed little interest in addressing the grievances or problems of the people, focusing primarily on extracting revenue. The colonial legal system and judiciary prioritized the interests of the government and its allies, such as landlords, merchants, and moneylenders. Consequently, the people felt unheard and disregarded, leaving them with no recourse but to resort to armed resistance in order to defend themselves. The conditions faced by tribal communities were not dissimilar to those experienced by people in other regions of India. However, the encroachment of outsiders into their autonomous tribal territories intensified their grievances and resulted in more widespread violence.

Causative Factors for People’s Uprisings

• The major factors that contributed to the resentment and uprisings of the people against the rule of the East India Company can be attributed to the following causes:
• Colonial land revenue settlements: The imposition of land revenue settlements by the colonial administration placed a heavy burden on the people. This included excessive taxation, eviction of peasants from their lands, and encroachments on tribal territories.
• Exploitation in rural society: The growth of intermediary revenue collectors, tenants, and moneylenders in rural areas led to the exploitation of the rural population. This further exacerbated the grievances of the people.
• Expansion of revenue administration over tribal lands: The extension of revenue administration into tribal areas resulted in the loss of tribal people's control over agricultural and forest lands. This encroachment on their traditional territories added to their discontent.
• Promotion of British manufactured goods: The British administration actively promoted their own manufactured goods while imposing heavy duties on Indian industries, particularly through export duties. This policy had a devastating impact on Indian handloom and handicraft industries, leading to economic hardships and resentment.
• Destruction of indigenous industry: The destruction of indigenous industries under British rule resulted in a significant migration of workers from the industrial sector to agriculture. This increased the pressure on land and agricultural resources, intensifying social and economic pressures on the population.
• These factors collectively contributed to the grievances and frustrations of the people, prompting them to rise up in protest against the Company's rule.

Weaknesses of People’s Uprisings

• These uprisings drew a large number of participants but were, in fact, localised and occurred at different times in different regions.
• They mostly arose out of local grievances.
• The leadership was semi-feudal in character, backwards-looking, and traditional in outlook and their resistance did not offer alternatives to the existing social set-up.
• If many of these revolts seemed similar to one another in wanting to oust the alien rule, it was not because of some ‘national’ impulse or common effort, but because they were protesting against conditions that were common to them.
• These rebellions were centuries-old in form and ideological/cultural content.
• Those who were not so uncooperative or obstinate were pacified through concessions by the authorities.
• The methods and arms used by the fighters in these uprisings were practically obsolete compared to the weapons and strategy—as well as deception and chicanery—employed by their opponents.
• The leadership was semi-feudal in character, backwards-looking, and traditional in outlook and their resistance did not offer alternatives to the existing social set-up.
• If many of these revolts seemed similar to one another in wanting to oust the alien rule, it was not because of some ‘national’ impulse or common effort, but because they were protesting against conditions that were common to them.
• These rebellions were centuries-old in form and ideological/cultural content.
• Those who were not so uncooperative or obstinate were pacified through concessions by the authorities.
• The methods and arms used by the fighters in these uprisings were practically obsolete compared to the weapons and strategy—as well as deception and chicanery—employed by their opponents.