Bengal on the Eve of the British Conquest

• Bengal, a wealthy province of the Mughal Empire encompassing present-day Bangladesh, Bihar, and Odisha, was a significant centre of trade. The English East India Company recognized the commercial importance of Bengal, as nearly 60 per cent of their imports from Asia consisted of goods from this region. Starting from the 1630s, the Company established trading factories in various Bengal cities like Balasore, Hooghly, Kasimbazar, Patna, and Dacca. The foundation of Calcutta by the English company in the 1690s solidified their presence and marked the completion of their commercial settlement in Bengal. The Company paid an annual sum to the Mughal emperor, granting them the freedom to trade in Bengal, while their exports from Bengal exceeded £50,000 per year.
• Between 1700 and 1756, Bengal was ruled by influential figures such as Murshid Quli Khan, Shujauddin, Sarfaraz Khan, and Alivardi Khan. Under their rule, Bengal experienced remarkable progress and prosperity. Unlike other regions of India dealing with conflicts, invasions, and disturbances, Bengal managed to evade such challenges. The population of Calcutta grew significantly during this period, and cities like Dacca and Murshidabad also flourished.
• However, tension arose between the English company's special privileges and the Bengal government, as the governors of Bengal resented the economic losses suffered by the provincial treasury due to these privileges. This friction became the primary cause of conflict between the English commercial interests and the Bengal government. In a relatively short period between 1757 and 1765, the power gradually shifted from the Nawabs of Bengal to the British, with the latter successfully defeating the former.

Alivardi Khan and the English

• In 1756, Alivardi Khan passed away, and his grandson Siraj-ud-daula succeeded him as the Nawab of Bengal. Siraj faced numerous challenges inherited from his grandfather's rule. He had rivals within his family, such as his cousin Shaukat Jang and his aunt Ghasiti Begum. Additionally, there were internal rivals and influential courtiers who opposed him. The growing power and commercial activities of the English East India Company also posed a threat to Siraj's position.

Challenges Before Siraj-ud-daula

• Impulsive and lacking experience, Siraj felt insecure in his position, leading him to take actions that proved counterproductive. He defeated and killed Shaukat Jang in battle, confiscated Ghasiti Begum's treasures, dismissed Mir Jafar (husband of Alivardi Khan's sister), and appointed Mir Madan in his place. Siraj also appointed a Kashmiri officer named Mohan Lal as the overall administrator, who acted as a de facto prime minister.

The Battle of Plassey Prelude to the Battle

• The Battle of Plassey, a significant event in Indian history, emerged as a result of the strained relationship between Siraj-ud-daula and the English East India Company. The Company had been misusing its trade privileges, impacting the Nawab's finances. Moreover, they fortified Calcutta without Nawab's permission and gave asylum to a political fugitive, Krishna Das, against the Nawab's will. The Company, on the other hand, suspected that Siraj intended to reduce their trade privileges in collaboration with the French in Bengal. When Siraj attacked and captured the English fort at Calcutta, known as the incident of the "Black Hole Tragedy," it escalated the open hostility between the two sides. The "Black Hole Tragedy" refers to the alleged imprisonment of 146 English individuals in a small room, resulting in the death of 123 of them due to suffocation. However, historians have questioned the veracity of this event and suggest that the number of victims may have been smaller.
• The Battle of Plassey, which took place on June 23, 1757, marked a significant turning point in the history of British rule in India. The English East India Company, led by Robert Clive, had gained a strong position in Bengal with the arrival of a well-equipped force from Madras. Clive formed a secret alliance with several influential individuals who were discontented with Siraj-ud-daula's rule, including Mir Jafar, Rai Durlabh, Jagat Seth, and Omichand.
• Under the terms of the alliance, Mir Jafar would be installed as the new nawab, and he would reward the Company for its support. This clandestine agreement bolstered the English position even before the battle began. The officials of the Nawab conspired against him, weakening his 50,000-strong force. In contrast, Clive's forces, though outnumbered, emerged victorious due to the betrayal and defection of some of the Nawab's troops.
• Following the battle, Siraj-ud-daula was captured and eventually killed on the orders of Miran, the son of Mir Jafar. With the English victory at Plassey, the Company gained control over the vast resources of Bengal. They effectively monopolized trade and commerce in the region, establishing their dominance over Bengal and paving the way for their subsequent expansion and consolidation of power in India.

Significance of the Battle of Plassey

• The Battle of Plassey had significant implications and laid the groundwork for British rule in India. Some of the key significance of the battle are:
• Establishment of British Empire: The victory at Plassey marked the beginning of British rule in India. It provided the British East India Company with a strong foothold in Bengal, which eventually expanded into other parts of the country. The battle was a critical step in the Company's gradual acquisition of power and territory, leading to the establishment of the British Empire in India.
• Political Consequences: Mir Jafar, who had colluded with the British in the battle, was installed as the new Nawab of Bengal. In return for his support, Mir Jafar granted significant privileges to the English, including large sums of money and the zamindari (land revenue rights) of 24 Parganas. This allowed the British to accumulate wealth and consolidate their control over economic resources in the region.
• Military Supremacy: The victory at Plassey demonstrated the military superiority of the English over their rivals, particularly the French, who were ousted from Bengal. It established the English as the dominant European power in the region and paved the way for their further military conquests in India.
• Territorial Grants: Following the battle, the English obtained territorial grants from the Nawab, which provided them with the resources needed to maintain a well-equipped military force. This enabled them to strengthen their military presence and expand their influence in Bengal and beyond.
• Increased Prestige and Recognition: The British victory at Plassey significantly enhanced their prestige and status in India. Their control over Calcutta was recognized, and they appointed a Resident at Nawab's court, solidifying their political influence and establishing a formal diplomatic presence.
• Overall, the Battle of Plassey marked a turning point in Indian history, as it set in motion the gradual consolidation of British power and paved the way for their eventual dominance over the Indian subcontinent.

Mir Kasim and the Treaty of 1760

• The Treaty of 1760 between the English East India Company and Mir Kasim, the new Nawab of Bengal, had several important features:
• Cession of Territories: Mir Kasim agreed to cede the districts of Burdwan, Midnapur, and Chittagong to the English East India Company. This transfer of territories increased the Company's control and influence in Bengal.
• Share in Chunam Trade: The Company secured half of the share in the lucrative chunam trade of Sylhet. Chunam is a type of limestone used in construction and had significant commercial value.
• Settlement of Dues: Mir Kasim promised to pay off the outstanding dues owed to the Company. This provision ensured that the Company would receive the payments owed to them, resolving the financial issues that had strained their relationship with Mir Jafar.
• Financial Support: Mir Kasim agreed to provide financial support to the Company's war efforts in southern India. He pledged to pay a sum of rupees five lakh, contributing to the Company's military operations.
• Mutual Enemies and Friends: The treaty established that Mir Kasim's enemies would be considered the Company's enemies, and his friends would be regarded as the Company's friends. This provision aimed to align their interests and ensure mutual support in conflicts and alliances.
• Land Settlement: The treaty stipulated that tenants from the Nawab's territory would not be allowed to settle in the lands of the Company, and vice-versa. This provision aimed to protect the respective territories and prevent land disputes between the Company and Mir Kasim.
• Additionally, the treaty resulted in the resignation of Mir Jafar in favour of Mir Kasim, with Mir Jafar receiving a fixed pension of Rs 1,500 per annum. This change in leadership reflected the shifting dynamics and alliances between the English East India Company and the Nawabs of Bengal.

Steps were taken by Mir Kasim

• Mir Kasim, one of the most capable nawabs following Alivardi Khan, relocated the capital from Murshidabad to Munger in Bihar after assuming power. This decision aimed to create a safe distance between him and the East India Company situated in Calcutta. Additionally, he implemented significant measures such as restructuring the bureaucracy with individuals he personally selected and revamping the army to improve its proficiency and effectiveness.

The Battle of Buxar

• The Battle of Buxar had its origins in the strained relationship between the East India Company and Mir Kasim, whom the Company had initially expected to be a compliant puppet. However, Mir Kasim defied the Company's expectations. The conflict began when Ram Narayan, the deputy governor of Bihar, refused to submit the accounts of Bihar's revenues despite repeated requests from the nawab. Mir Kasim could not tolerate this open defiance of his authority. The English officials in Patna supported Ram Narayan, further escalating tensions.
• Another point of contention between Mir Kasim and the English was the misuse of the Company's trade permit, known as Dastak, which exempted certain goods from duties. Company officials misused the Dastak, resulting in both financial losses for the nawab and unfair competition for local merchants. The English company had obtained the right to trade in Bengal without paying transit dues or tolls through an imperial Farman. However, the Company's servants also sought the same privileges for their private trade and sold Dastak to Indian merchants for personal gain. They even resorted to coercive tactics to obtain goods at lower prices, which contradicted the principles of duty-free trade.
• In response, Mir Kasim decided to abolish all duties, but the British protested and demanded preferential treatment compared to other traders. This disagreement over transit duties between the Nawab and the Company eventually led to the outbreak of war in 1763. The English achieved successive victories at Katwah, Murshidabad, Giria, Sooty, and Munger. Mir Kasim fled to Awadh, where he formed a confederacy with the Nawab of Awadh, Shuja-ud-Beulah, and the Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam II. Their goal was to regain control of Bengal from the English.
• On October 22, 1764, the combined armies of Mir Kasim, the Nawab of Awadh, and Shah Alam II faced a defeat against the English forces led by Major Hector Munro at the Battle of Buxar. It was a closely contested battle, but ultimately the English emerged victorious. This battle had significant implications as it not only marked the defeat of the Nawab of Bengal but also the Mughal Emperor of India at the hands of the English. The English's triumph established them as a major power in northern India and contenders for dominance over the entire country.
• Following the battle, Mir Jafar, who had been appointed as the Nawab in 1763 during the strained relations between Mir Kasim and the East India Company, agreed to relinquish control over certain districts.

Robert Clive

• No comprehensive analysis of British rule during this period would be complete without mentioning Robert Clive, who joined the military after resigning from a clerk's position. He played a pivotal role in establishing British power in India. Clive served as the Governor of Bengal twice, first from 1757 to 1760 and then from 1765 to 1767. During his tenure, he implemented the dual government system to administer Bengal. However, Clive's time in India came to an end when he returned to England, where he reportedly took his own life in 1774.
• As part of the agreements following the Battle of Buxar, the districts of Midnapore, Burdwan, and Chittagong were handed over to the English for the maintenance of their army. Additionally, the English were granted duty-free trade privileges in Bengal, with the exception of a two per cent duty on salt.
• After the death of Mir Jafar, his minor son, Najimud-doula, was appointed as the nawab. However, the actual administrative power remained in the hands of the naib-subahdar, who could be appointed or dismissed by the English.

The Treaty of Allahabad

• Robert Clive concluded two important treaties at Allahabad in August 1765—one with the Nawab of Awadh and the other with the Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam II.

Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula, under certain agreements, agreed to the following terms:

• (i) Surrendering Allahabad and Kara to Emperor Shah Alam II.
• (ii) Paying a war indemnity of Rs 50 lakh to the East India Company.
• (iii) Granting full possession of the estate of Balwant Singh, the Zamindar of Banaras.

Shah Alam II agreed to:

Under the agreements, the following terms were agreed upon:

• (i) Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula would reside in Allahabad, which would be ceded to him by the Nawab of Awadh, with the protection of the East India Company.
• (ii) Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula would issue a farman, granting the Diwani (revenue rights) of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa to the East India Company. In return, the Company would make an annual payment of Rs 26 lakh.
• (iii) The Company would receive a provision of Rs 53 lakh from Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula for undertaking Nizamat functions, which included military defence, police, and the administration of justice in the aforementioned provinces.
• Robert Clive, the key figure in these negotiations, did not seek to annex Awadh as it would have placed the Company under the obligation to protect an extensive land frontier from Afghan and Maratha invasions. The treaty aimed to establish a strong friendship between the Nawab and the Company, turning Awadh into a buffer state.
• Similarly, Clive's arrangement with Shah Alam II, the Mughal Emperor, was motivated by practical considerations. It made the emperor a useful figurehead for the Company, essentially a "rubber stamp" of its decisions. Additionally, the emperor's Farman legalized the political gains of the Company in Bengal.
• As for Mir Kasim, the dethroned Nawab of Bengal, he endured a life of destitution as a homeless wanderer following his downfall. He ultimately passed away in June 1777, suffering from abject misery.

Dual Government in Bengal (1765-72)

• Following the Battle of Buxar, the East India Company solidified its control over Bengal, becoming the dominant power in the region. Robert Clive introduced the dual system of government, which involved shared rule between the Company and the Nawab. Under this system, the Company took charge of Diwani functions (revenue collection) and Nizamat functions (police and judicial matters) in Bengal. The Company exercised its Diwani rights as the diwan and its Nizamat rights by nominating the deputy subahdar.
• By acquiring Diwani functions from the Mughal emperor and Nizamat functions from the subahdar of Bengal, the dual system provided a significant advantage to the Company. It allowed the puppet Indian ruler, the Nawab, to maintain the appearance of authority while keeping the real power in the hands of the Company. The Nawab was responsible for maintaining peace and order, but he relied on the Company for both financial resources and military forces, as the Company controlled the army and revenues.
• For the execution of Diwani functions, the Company appointed two deputy diwans: Mohammad Reza Khan for Bengal and Raja Sitab Roy for Bihar. Mohammad Reza Khan also served as the deputy Nazim or deputy subahdar. However, the dual system led to an administrative breakdown and had disastrous consequences for the people of Bengal. Neither the Company nor the Nawab prioritized administration and public welfare.
• In 1772, Warren Hastings abolished the dual system, bringing an end to its implementation.

Views

• The views expressed by G.B. Malleson and Percival Spear highlight the significance of the Battle of Buxar and the role of Robert Clive in shaping British power in India.
• G.B. Malleson emphasizes the decisive nature of the battle, considering it a confrontation between the foreigner (the English) and the native forces. He notes that the English victory not only saved Bengal but also expanded the British frontier to Allahabad. Additionally, the battle forged strong ties between the conquerors and the rulers of Awadh, leading to a long-lasting alliance. Malleson sees the battle as a turning point with profound and lasting consequences.
• Percival Spear's perspective focuses on Robert Clive as a harbinger of the future and a forerunner of the British Empire. Spear suggests that Clive's actions were not mere imperial planning but rather experimental in nature, unveiling the potential for British dominion in India. Spear attributes Clive with revealing the possibilities that would shape the trajectory of the British Empire.
• Both perspectives recognize the significance of the Battle of Buxar and Robert Clive's role in shaping British dominance in India, albeit from different angles.