Adolf Hitler's Aims (1933)

Upon becoming Chancellor in 1933, Hitler articulated a series of aims for the Nazi Party:

1. Destroying the Treaty of Versailles:
• Hitler's primary goal was to dismantle the Treaty of Versailles, which was viewed as a humiliation for Germany following World War I.
2. Building a Strong Army:
• Hitler sought to build a powerful and well-equipped German military, a direct contravention of the Treaty of Versailles, which imposed limitations on the size and capabilities of the German armed forces.
3. Annexation of German-Populated Areas:
• Hitler aimed to unify all ethnic Germans into the Third Reich. This involved annexing regions with significant German minority populations, such as Austria and parts of Czechoslovakia and Poland.
4. Recovery of Territory:
• Hitler sought the recovery of territories lost after World War I, including the Saar region, the city of Danzig (now Gdańsk, Poland), and the Polish Corridor.

Second Set of Aims (Disagreements Among Scholars)

While the first set of aims was largely achieved without war by 1938, there are differing opinions among scholars regarding the second set of aims:

1. Lebensraum (Living Space):
• Some argue that Hitler's territorial ambitions extended beyond the initial annexations. He intended to seize all of Czechoslovakia and Poland and possibly move on to occupy Russia up to the Ural Mountains.
• The concept of Lebensraum aimed to secure additional land for the German population, ensuring food security and offering space for future colonization. This expansion would also serve to eliminate communism.
2. Conquest of African Colonies and Atlantic Bases:
• The next stage in this view would be the conquest of the African colonies held by other European powers and establishing bases in the Atlantic Ocean.

Regarding the outbreak of World War II:

• Some scholars argue that Hitler did not initially desire a global conflict but rather a limited war with Poland. Hitler may not have fully understood the extent of Britain's commitment to protecting Poland. Poland was militarily weaker than Czechoslovakia, and Britain had previously followed a policy of appeasement when Hitler annexed Czechoslovakia. For example, the Munich Agreement of 1938 saw Britain appease Hitler by allowing the annexation of Sudetenland.
• The choice to go to war with Poland, a weaker ally compared to Czechoslovakia, raised questions about Britain's intentions and commitment to checking German expansion.

This overview outlines Adolf Hitler's aims and the complexities surrounding his foreign policy objectives, leading up to the outbreak of World War II. Hitler's territorial ambitions and strategies played a critical role in shaping the global conflict.

Adolf Hitler's International Actions (1933-1939)

1. Saar (1935)

• Background: The Saar region's plebiscite was promised to be held after 15 years, as stipulated in the Treaty of Versailles. Until then, France was to utilize its coal mines.
• Plebiscite Outcome: The League of Nations' Mandate Commission successfully conducted the plebiscite, with 90% of the population voting in favor of being handed over to Germany.
• Hitler's Statement: Hitler, aiming to pacify France after the Non-Aggression Pact with Poland (1934), stated that the transfer of Saar had resolved all grievances between France and Germany.

2. Conscription (1935)

• Introduction: Hitler introduced conscription, which involved compulsory military service. The Treaty of Versailles had prohibited Germany from implementing conscription.
• Reasons: Hitler justified this move by citing an increase in the strength of the British Air Force and France extending the conscription period from 12 to 18 months. This signaled that France and Britain were also preparing militarily against possible future German aggression.
• Reactions: Britain, France, and Italy formed the Stresa Front (1935) in response, condemning Hitler's introduction of conscription and guaranteeing Austria's frontiers to preempt any German plans for annexing Austria.

3. Anglo-German Naval Agreement (1935)

• Agreement: Hitler's strategic victory came with the Anglo-German Naval Agreement (1935). Under this agreement, Hitler offered to limit the German navy to 35% of the British Navy.
• British Perspective: Britain believed this was the best way to control German armament after the introduction of conscription, as it sought to avoid a war and ensure Germany was not a direct threat.
• Impact: The agreement led to a significant increase in German rearmament by 1938, with a substantial military buildup, including a large army, airplanes, U-Boats (submarines), and naval vessels.

4. Remilitarization of the Rhineland (1936)

• Opportunity: Hitler capitalized on the preoccupation of Britain and France with the Abyssinian crisis to send German troops into the demilitarized Rhineland.
• Violations: This move violated both the Treaty of Versailles and the commitment given by Gustav Stresemann at the Locarno Treaties (1925).

5. Rome-Berlin Axis (1936)

• Formation: The Rome-Berlin Axis established an alliance between Italy and Germany. It signified that peace-loving nations in Europe would align around this axis, symbolically represented by an imaginary line between Italy and Germany.

6. Anti-Comintern Pact (1936)

• Alliance Formation: Germany and Japan were the initial signatories of the Anti-Comintern Pact. Italy joined in 1937. The alliance targeted the spread of communism within respective countries. It also signaled to France and Britain that the member nations were more focused on countering Russia than them.

7. Spanish Civil War (1936)

• German Involvement: Germany participated in favor of Francisco Franco during the Spanish Civil War. Hitler ordered bombings in Spain, leading to significant civilian casualties.
• Impact: This terrified Britain and France, who became more inclined to appease Hitler to prevent a devastating war that would result in high civilian casualties.

Anschluss with Austria (1938)

• Meaning of Anschluss: Anschluss, in German, means union. Austria had a substantial population of ethnic Germans.
• Treaty of Versailles Restriction: The Treaty of Versailles explicitly prohibited the union between Germany and Austria.
• 1931: First Attempt at Union: In 1931, Germany initiated its first move towards union by proposing an Austria-Germany Custom Union. France opposed this at the Permanent Court of International Justice, which ruled against the custom union, despite its economic viability.
• Objections from Russia and Italy: Russia and Italy were also against the custom union as it signified the growing nationalist sentiment in Germany.
• Failed Attempt in 1934: Hitler's initial attempt at annexing Austria in 1934 was thwarted by Italy. Italy sent troops to the border with Austria at the Brener Pass when a German attack seemed imminent after Austrian Nazis assassinated the Austrian Chancellor. Fearing conflict with Italy, Hitler abandoned the attempt.
• Neutralizing Italian Opposition: Hitler worked on neutralizing Italian opposition. When Mussolini invaded Abyssinia in 1935, Hitler did not object. In 1936, he solidified an alliance with Italy by forming the Rome-Berlin Axis. Italy withdrew its objections to Austria's annexation in exchange for Hitler refraining from imposing sanctions against Italy for annexing Abyssinia.
• Realization of Anschluss (1938): In 1938, the Anschluss finally took place. Austrian Nazis staged massive demonstrations in Austria against the government.
• Germany's Demands: Germany presented Austria with a list of ten demands, one of which was to appoint a Nazi as the Interior Minister.
• Plebiscite and Hitler's Threats: The Chancellor of Austria called for a plebiscite to decide on the union with Germany. Although somewhat confident of a negative verdict, Hitler, uncertain of the outcome, threatened to invade Austria, declaring he would "make Vienna, the Spain of Austria." Faced with this threat, the Chancellor resigned, and the ensuing Nazi government invited Hitler to annex Austria.
• International Response: Britain and France offered only verbal protests. They feared provoking a war with Germany and aimed to prevent potential high civilian casualties, especially in light of Hitler's brutal bombings during the Spanish Civil War (1936).
• Impact of the Anschluss:
• Blow to Czechoslovakia: Czechoslovakia, now surrounded by Germany from the south (Austria), west, and north, faced increased vulnerability.
• Munich Conference (1938): Germany later demanded and obtained Sudetenland at the Munich Conference (1938), resulting in significant industrial losses for Czechoslovakia, which fell into German hands.

The Anschluss marked a significant step in Hitler's expansionist agenda, reshaping the geopolitical landscape of Central Europe.

Munich Conference (1938)

• Territorial Outcome: The Munich Conference resulted in Germany gaining control of Sudetenland, which was primarily inhabited by ethnic Germans in Czechoslovakia.
• Hitler's Discontent with Czechoslovakia: Hitler held a deep aversion towards Czechoslovakia due to its democratic nature and its establishment under the Treaty of Versailles. He aimed to absorb Czechoslovakia into his vision of Lebensraum, or living space, for the Germans. Sudetenland was of particular interest due to its rich industrial base and significant German population.
• Pretext of Discrimination: Hitler propagated the idea that the Germans in Sudetenland were facing discrimination by the Czechoslovakian government. This argument was based on claims that Germans had higher unemployment rates compared to other groups.
• Nazi-Organized Protests: The Nazis orchestrated large-scale protests in Sudetenland, creating an atmosphere of unrest and tension.
• Munich Conference Participants: The Munich Conference included representatives from Italy, France, Britain, and Germany. Notably, the USSR and Czechoslovakia were excluded from the discussions.
• Conference Decision: The conference's resolution allowed Germany to annex Sudetenland, with the assurance that they would not make any further claims on Czechoslovakian territory.
• Stipulation to Czechoslovakia: Britain and France conveyed to Czechoslovakia that if they rejected the Munich Pact, they would not receive assistance in case of a German attack. This stance contradicted the spirit of the Locarno Treaties, where France had committed to aiding Poland and Czechoslovakia if Germany posed a threat to them.
• Consequences for Czechoslovakia: Under the Munich Pact, Czechoslovakia ceded Sudetenland, losing approximately 70% of its heavy industry and the majority of its fortifications against Germany. This loss weakened the authority of the Czechoslovakian government and exacerbated economic challenges.
• Emergence of Law and Order Issues: The territorial concessions and ensuing unrest in the region led to internal strife, with Slovakia eventually pushing for secession.

The Munich Conference marked a critical juncture in the lead-up to World War II, with far-reaching implications for Czechoslovakia and the broader geopolitical landscape.

Annexation of Rest of Czechoslovakia (1939)

• Background: After the Munich Conference, Hitler created circumstances that forced the President of Czechoslovakia to request German troops for restoring order. German troops then marched in, leading to the annexation of Czechoslovakia.
• Verbal Protests: Britain and France voiced their protest, but it was only done verbally. Britain argued that the guarantee to the rest of Czechoslovakia did not apply, as the country itself had requested German troops, technically negating the notion of invasion.

Invasion of Poland (1939)

• Shift in British Policy: After the annexation of Czechoslovakia, Britain decided that there would be no more appeasement of Germany. The annexation of Poland was deemed unjustifiable.
• Hitler's Demands: Hitler announced his desire for Danzig, a city with a 95% German population, and for access to the Rail-Road Connectivity through the Polish Corridor, which would connect the rest of Germany to East Prussia.
• Polish Resistance: Despite these demands being potentially reasonable in certain aspects, they followed so closely after the Czechoslovakia situation that Poland feared a full-scale invasion.
• Non-Aggression Pact with Russia: Hitler signed a Non-Aggression Pact with Russia in 1939 to ensure its neutrality, enabling him to proceed with the full-scale invasion of Poland.
• Onset of World War II: With the invasion of Poland, World War II officially began.

Key reasons for the policy of appeasement by Britain and, to a lesser extent, France, as well as an explanation of each point:

Reasons for the Policy of Appeasement

1. Avoiding War: The major powers wanted to avoid war, as they were not economically or militarily strong enough to ensure victory, and a war might likely result in a stalemate. They feared the devastation and civilian casualties that had been witnessed in the Spanish Civil War.
2. Economic Crisis (1929): The Great Depression had left European powers financially strained, making rearmament and war expenses unaffordable. Economic recovery was still incomplete.
3. Public Opinion: The general public and business interests in Britain were staunchly against war. After World War I, public opinion had shifted significantly away from supporting military conflicts. War redirected entire economies toward military production and caused infrastructure damage that hurt industrial interests.
4. Sympathy: Many believed that Germany and Italy had legitimate grievances, preventing a united public opinion in favor of military confrontation. Some leaders, especially in Britain, advocated for a more sympathetic approach and called for the revision of the harshest Treaty of Versailles clauses, aiming to address the root causes of potential conflict.
5. Failure of the League of Nations: The League of Nations had proven ineffective in maintaining peace and resolving conflicts. British Prime Minister Chamberlain favored personal diplomacy and negotiations with world leaders as an alternative to war.
6. Economic Cooperation: Germany was an important export market for Britain, and economic cooperation was seen as mutually beneficial. Britain believed that aiding Germany's economic recovery could foster friendly relations.
7. Fear of Communist Russia: Many conservative groups in Britain and France were more afraid of the spread of communism from Russia than they were of the Nazis. They saw Nazi Germany as a buffer against the westward expansion of communism and favored German rearmament.
8. Buying Time: Some argued that Britain used appeasement to buy time for self-rearmament. Economic difficulties and the aftermath of World War I had taken a toll, and British leaders believed that the longer the appeasement process, the more time they would have to rearm themselves. Chamberlain pursued rearmament in tandem with appeasement to serve as a deterrent.

These reasons collectively contributed to the policy of appeasement and, in some cases, its eventual limitations in preventing further aggression by Nazi Germany.

Policy of Appeasement and Its Effects

1. Perception and Miscalculation: Appeasement created a perception among fascist powers, especially Hitler, that Britain and France were complacent and weak. Hitler believed that these powers would not take action even if Germany invaded Poland, whose protection had been guaranteed by Britain.
2. Attempts to Check Germany:
• France resisted appeasement and took actions against German expansionism. It brought Germany to the Permanent Court of International Justice over the proposal of an Austria-Germany Custom Union (1931).
• France formed the Stresa Front (1935) to oppose German conscription (1935) and guaranteed the Austrian frontiers to deter German aggression.
• Italy prevented the first attempt at Anschluss in 1934.
• France facilitated the entry of the USSR into the League of Nations in 1934, with the aim of building an anti-German alliance involving Italy, France, and the USSR.
3. Hoare-Laval Pact (1935): A secret pact between Britain and France, the Hoare-Laval Pact entailed the partition of Abyssinia, with Italy receiving the majority of the territory. The pact failed because it was leaked to the public and caused outrage in Britain and France.
4. Reasons for French Appeasement:
• France was deeply divided into left and right-wing factions during the 1930s.
• Right-wing factions in France favored Hitler as a buffer against Communist Russia, which influenced their approach to appeasement.

This policy of appeasement ultimately led to miscalculations by fascist powers, particularly Germany, and played a role in the events that ultimately triggered World War II. Other European powers' efforts to check Germany, while significant, ultimately did not prevent further aggression by Nazi Germany.