Indo-Aryans migrated in a series of immigration from different regions.

• Evidence show migration from Andronovo Culture (South Siberia) to north of Hindu Kush and from there to India
• Evidence of horses, fire cults, spoked wheels, and cremation support this view

It is the most accepted and dominant theory till

now

Aryans migrated from Central Asia and Eurasian Steppe

• The similarity between Vedic words and concepts with that of Avesta (Iranian Text)

A recent study ‘The Genomic Formation of South and Central Asia’ (2018) of the Y chromosome support this view

Max Muller

Europe is the homeland of Aryans

Based on the comparative linguistic study of Greek, Latin, German, and Sanskrit e.g. Sanskrit words ‘Pitri’ and ‘Matri’ are similar to the Latin ‘Pater’ and ‘Mater’

Sir William Jones (1786)

Aryans were indigenous to the subcontinent.

• The sacrificial rituals, the geographical data, found from Rig Veda point to the Indian origin of Vedic Aryans

DNA analysis of Women Skelton found at Rakhigarhi refutes the Aryan migration theory

• Early Aryans were based in and around Indus and its tributaries (Western India)
• They called it Sapt-Sindavah (land of Seven Rivers)

Saraswati (Ghaggar-Hakra Channel) was considered the holiest river

• Later Aryans moved to eastern areas (up to 

Bengal) with the help of fire and Iron tools

• The core area was the Kuru-Panchala region 
  (Indo-Gangetic divide and the upper Ganga 
  Valley)(see image)

Story of Videga Madhava (in Satapatha Brahmana): 
Videga Madhava moved east of River Gandak with help 
of fire god Agni

• Monarchy but the office of the chief was not hereditary
• Chief (Rajan) was called Gopati or Gopa (Protector of cows)
• Battle was called Gavisthis or Gavenshana or Goshu but no standing army
• No doctrine of divinity associated with the kingship
• Important functionaries:
  • Purohit (priest)
  • Senani (leader of the army)

Gramini (leader of a village)

• Kingship became hereditary
• King’s power increased and they performed various sacrifices to enhance his position
  • Rajasuya ( royal consecration and 
    king conferred supreme power )
  • Vajapeya (chariot race to win against 
    all kinsmen)
  • Ashwamedha (control over the area in which royal horse ran uninterrupted)
• Kings still had no standing army

• It had a Patrilineal system
• Kula (Family) with the head as Kulapa -> Vis or clan -> Jana or tribe (largest social unit)

• Jana changed to Janapadas ( denoting territory) and further enlarged to Kingdoms like Mahajanapadas

‘Rastra’ term appeared as wars were fought for territories now rather than cows

• Sabhas (exclusive body for elites)
• Samiti ( broad-based folk assembly, presided by the Rajan)
• Vidatha (Tribal assembly with diverse functions)

Gana (Assembly or troop)

• Sabhas and Samitis diminished in importance
• Vidhatha disappeared

• Division based on Clan and not Caste lines
  • Even the Rajans and the Purohits were part of the clan network

The occupation was not based on Birth

• Four-fold Division of Society based on Caste (see image)
• Caste exogamy and rigid social hierarchy developed
• Increasing cult of scarifies added to the power of the Brahmanas

• Varna (colour) was the basis of differentiation between Vedic and non-Vedic people (called ‘dasyus’ or ‘dasas’)
• Rig Vedic society cannot be therefore called totally egalitarian society as social stratification was based on the division of labor and gender

Rig Vedic people familiar with slavery

• The Varna system of social distinction became more distinct.
• Varna system became based on birth and less on occupation

Varna-ashrama-dharma society: Showed four stages of life (see image)

• Despite patriarchal society, women had important positions, were educated and had access to the assembly

They had the choice to choose their husband. No incidence of Sati, or Purdah

• Their position in society
  • In the family, women were confined to household chores and subordinate position
• Women were not permitted to attend public assemblies like Sabhas and Samitis.
• Instances of Sati and Purdah
• Despite these, there are a great examples of women scholars in this period such as Gargi, Maitreyi, and Katyayani

• Early Vedic people practised usually Monogamous marriage but Polygyny and Polyandry also existed
• Levirate (marrying the husband’s younger brother on the death of husband) also existed

Niyoga marriage existed ( it was a variant of widow remarriage in which childless widow was temporarily married to the husband’s brother to produce children )

• Child marriages became common.
• Gotras were institutionalized. Marriage between persons of the same gotra was forbidden
• Mention of Chandrayana Penance for men marrying women of the same gotra

• Pastoral economy: Cattle rearing was the main occupation
• The measure of wealth was cattle and wealthy man was called Gomat

Agricultural economy: Agriculture has become the chief 

means of livelihood

• Meagre evidence of Trade and commerce
• No concept of private property

Unite of currency was Nishka

• Although, the land was still communally owned but
  the private property began to be recognized and 
  the head of household (Grahpati) owned the land
• The barter system was still prevalent but ‘Niskha’ 
  was used as a unit of value (not as typical currency)

Shresthins (guild ) was the organization of merchants, 
which became prominent

• No regular revenue system
• Voluntary tribute (Bali) and bounty won in a battle was the source of income

Prestations: gift exchanged on group level was important for economy Rig Vedic society e.g. exchange of courtesies, weapon, cattle, etc.

• Collection of taxes and tribute was made 
  mandatory and were done by Sangrihitri

Vaishyas were the only tribute paying community in later 
Vedic times

• Chariot-making, Carpentry, Tanning, etc.
• They were familiar with copper but didn’t use Iron

It had Ochre Coloured Pottery

• Started to use Iron (called Krishna Ayas/ Shyama 
  Ayas)
• They knew of Tin, lead, silver, gold, bronze and 
  Copper

Later Vedic culture is also called PGW (Painted Grey ware)-
Iron Phase culture as this type of pottery was used during 
this phase (see image)

• Shifting type of agriculture
• Barley (yava) was the main grain

Used wooden plough (Phala, langala and ‘sira’)

• Settled agriculture had started and this led to the 
  beginning of Urbanism (‘Nagar’ mentioned in 
  Taittiriya Aranyaka)
• Mixed farming (cultivation along with herding) 
  was one of the prime occupations

Rice (Vrihi) and Wheat (Godhuma) was the staple diet

• There was no temple or idol worship

They practiced primitive animism (worshipped forces of nature such as wind, rain, water, etc.)

• Idolatry became prominent
• Sacrifices became more elaborate and important
• Brahmans gained in importance and they 
  maintained their supremacy
• They performed yajnas such as Ashvamedha, 
  Vajapeya, etc. to establish their authority over 
  the chiefs and their territory

• Indra (most important): God of thunder/rain
• Agni: God of fire
• Varuna: God of water
• Soma: God of plants
• Yama: God of death
• Pushan: God of jungle paths, herdsmen, and cattle
• Vishnu: Benevolent god
• Marutas: god of storm

Ashvins: twin god of war and fertility

• Indra and Agni lost importance and Prajapati 
  (god of creation) emerged supreme
• Vishnu, Rudra (previously minor god) became 
  prominent
• Division in the class of deities appeared 
  e.g. Pushan (god of cattle) became the god of 
  Shudras

• Savitri: Solar deity
• Aditi: Goddess of eternity
• Prithvi: Earth Goddess
• Nirrti: Goddess of death
• Usha: Goddess of dawn

• Gandharvas (divine musicians)
• Apsaras (Mistress of God)
• Vishwadevas (Intermediate Deities)

Aryaman (Guardian of compacts and marriages)