• The word agriculture is derived from the Latin words ager/agri means soil and culture, which means cultivation. It is a primary activity in which the cultivation of crops, fruits, vegetables, flowers, etc. and animal husbandry is included making optimum use of the resources of the land.

Agriculture

•  Agriculture stands as the foundational economic activity in any nation, with diverse agricultural practices existing simultaneously across all continents.
• Preceding the era of agriculture, humanity primarily engaged in hunting, gathering, or fishing. The origins of agriculture, known as vegeculture, can be traced back at least 10,000 years, likely emerging first in South-East Asia.
• Agricultural practices vary globally due to distinct physical, social, and economic conditions, leading to the development of different agricultural systems.

Factors Influencing Agriculture

Key factors influencing agriculture are outlined below.

• Climate: A pivotal factor impacting agriculture, as plants require adequate heat and moisture for optimal growth. Regions with a maximum temperature of less than 10°C are generally unsuitable for plant cultivation.
• Soil: Another significant physical factor influencing agriculture is soil. Continuous farming can deplete soil fertility, and issues such as soil erosion and waterlogging have become prevalent.
• Soil-related issues necessitate the implementation of various soil conservation practices, including contour farming, terrace farming, and the construction of dams and dykes.
• Topography significantly influences farming practices, determining soil erosion levels, cultivation methods, and transportation modes in a given area. Hilly regions often face soil erosion challenges, with terrain limitations impacting machinery use and transportation development.
• Transportation infrastructure development expands the agricultural scope, creating broader markets for agricultural products.
• Market proximity plays a vital role in agriculture, influencing transportation costs.
• Labor supply shapes the nature and type of agriculture, with intensive cultivation thriving in regions with abundant, cheap labor, while extensive agriculture requires fewer laborers in sparsely populated areas.
• Scientific and technological advancements modernize farming practices. Traditional methods yield lower outputs, whereas modern technologies such as fertilizers, pesticides, machinery, and high-yielding seeds contribute to higher agricultural productivity.

Types of Agriculture

The agriculture is mainly classified into two parts

1. Subsistence Farming

• This type of farming is practiced to meet the needs of the farmer's family.
• Traditionally, low levels of technology and household labor are used to produce on small output
• Subsistence farming can be further classified as primitive subsistence and intensive subsistence farming.

Primitive Subsistence Agriculture

•  It includes shifting cultivation and nomadic herding Shifting Cultivation
• It is practiced in the thickly forested areas of the Amazon basin, Tropical Africa, parts of South-East Asia and North-East India.
• These are the areas of heavy rainfall and quick regeneration of vegetation.
• A plot of land is cleared by felling the trees and burning them. The ashes are then mixed with the soul and crops like maize, yam, potatoes wid cassava are grown.
• After the soil loses its fertility, the land is abandoned and the cultivator moves to a new plot. Shifting cultivation is also known as slash-and-burn agriculture

Names of Shifting Cultivation in Different Parts of the World

Nomadic Herding

• Nomadic herding is practiced in semi-arid and arid regions like the Sahara, Central Asia, and specific parts of India such as Rajasthan and Jammu, and Kashmir. 
• Herdsmen migrate with their animals, following defined routes in search of fodder and water, adapting to climatic constraints and terrain. Commonly reared animals include sheep, camels, yaks, and goats, providing various products like milk, meat, wool, hides, etc., for the herders and their families.

Intensive Subsistence Agriculture

• This form of agriculture is predominantly found in densely populated regions of monsoon Asia, encompassing Southern, Southeast, and East Asia. 

There are two variations:

(i) Wet cultivation, dominated by paddy cultivation due to high population density. 

Farmers use family labor intensively, with limited machinery involvement. Farmyard manure maintains soil fertility, resulting in high yield per unit area but low labor productivity.

(ii) Other crops, excluding paddy, are grown in areas where growing rice is impractical due to geographical factors. 

• Wheat, soybean, barley, and sorghum are cultivated in regions like Northern China, Manchuria, North Korea, North Japan, Western parts of the Indo-Gangetic plains in India, and dry parts of Western and Southern India. Similar to wet cultivation, this type often involves irrigation.

Commercial Farming

• Commercial farming focuses on raising crops and livestock for sale, aiming to generate profit. It requires substantial capital investment and employs highly mechanized processes. Examples include commercial grain farming, mechanical farming, mixed farming, and plantation agriculture.

Commercial Grain Farming

• In commercial grain farming, farms cover large areas, ranging from 240 to 16,000 hectares. Wheat is the primary crop, with both spring and winter wheat varieties cultivated
• Mechanization is extensive, employing tractors, plows, drills, and combine harvesters. While mechanization increases efficiency, the output per unit of land is generally lower compared to regions where intensive cultivation is the norm.
• Despite the relatively low yields per unit of land, commercial farming thrives due to a substantial surplus, resulting in high per capita production. Large-scale commercial grain cultivation is concentrated in five countries: the United States, Canada, South Africa, Argentina, and Australia.

Mechanical Farming

• Modern large-scale farming, known as mechanical farming, focuses on extensive farms that cultivate a single crop annually. The utilization of labor and capital per hectare is comparatively lower than intensive farming.

Mixed Farming

• This farming approach involves variable-sized holdings with individual family ownership and family-operated farms. While the ratio of cropland to total agricultural land is high, livestock production intensity is even higher. 
• Crops grown on mixed commercial farms are primarily used as animal feed rather than for direct human consumption. This type of farming is characterized by substantial expenditures on machinery, farm buildings, manures, fertilizers, and technical skill input by farmers.
• Cereals dominate the cropland use in mixed commercial farming, with the leading grain varying based on climate and soil. 
• This practice is observed in Europe from Ireland to Russia, in North America west of the Appalachians and east of the 98° meridian, as well as in South Africa, northeastern Argentina, southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.

Plantation Agriculture

• Plantation agriculture involves the large-scale cultivation of cash crops for export on estates exceeding 40 hectares. 
• This capital-intensive and often highly centralized form of cultivation is common in the tropics and subtropics of Latin America, Africa, and Asia. Major crops grown in plantations include cotton, sugarcane, coffee, rubber, and tobacco.

Other Types of farming

Mediterranean Agriculture

• In the bordering areas of the Mediterranean, olives and grapes are the two most important cash crops. Italy, France, and Spain dominate the production of two-thirds of the world's wine, with Greece specializing in raisins and wine, and Spain in oranges, olive oil, and wine. Cereal crops, especially wheat and barley, hold significance in Mediterranean agriculture.

Livestock Ranching

• Commercial grazing of livestock over extensive areas characterizes ranching, which is associated with modest capital and human resources. 
• Major livestock types include sheep, goats, and horses. Ranching is rare in Europe, except in Spain and Portugal, and is primarily observed in semi-arid regions worldwide, including the Western United States, parts of Canada and Mexico, the Llanos of Venezuela, Sertao of Brazil, the Pampa of Uruguay, and the Chaco and Patagonia regions in South Africa.

Commercial Dairy Farming

• Capital-intensive commercial dairy farming involves labor-intensive animal husbandry and is concentrated in Northwestern Europe, specifically in coastal and low-lying meadowlands with abundant precipitation, warm summers, and cold winters.
• Other regions of significant dairy farming include the eastern states of southeastern Australia and the North Island of New Zealand.

Horticulture (Market Gardening or Truck Farming)

• Market gardens are situated just outside the city in suburban or climatically and soil-favorable areas.
• Farmers in these regions specialize in specific fruits or vegetables, practicing small and intensive farming.
• The farming is both capital-intensive and scientifically managed.
• In addition to market gardening, a modern development in the industrial regions of Western Europe and North America is factory farming.
• Livestock, particularly poultry and cattle, are raised under one cover. This form of farming is termed truck farming due to the use of trucks for transporting produce from the farm to buyers.

Collective Farming

• The land of a collective farm is state-owned but leased to the association of farm workers and operated under the guidance of a committee chosen by the members. Collective farms are highly mechanized and are known as Kolkhoz in the Soviet Union, Communes in China, and Kibbutzim in Israel.

Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF)

• According to a case study by the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations, the neoliberalization of the Indian economy has led to a deep agrarian crisis, rendering small-scale farming an unviable vocation.
• Privatized seeds, inputs, and markets are inaccessible and expensive for peasants.
• Indian farmers find themselves trapped in a vicious cycle of debt due to high production costs, exorbitant interest rates, volatile market prices, and the escalating costs of fossil fuel-based inputs and private seeds.

Zero Budget

• Zero Budget means farming without using any credit or spending money on purchased inputs. Natural farming involves farming with nature and without chemicals. 
• Zero Budget Natural Farming, originating from traditional Indian practices, was promoted by Maharashtrian agriculturist Subhash Palekar in the mid-1990s as an alternative to the Green Revolution's chemical-driven methods and intensive irrigation.
• Under these conditions, Zero Budget Natural Farming aims to eliminate reliance on loans and significantly reduce production costs, breaking the debt cycle for struggling farmers.

Cooperative Farming

• Cooperative farming involves farming operations conducted by individuals in collaboration with other co-operative members.
• These co-operatives engage in the collection and purchase of agricultural inputs such as seeds, fertilizers, and equipment.
• They assist individual farmers in selling their agricultural produce.
•  Farmers combine their land, livestock, and implements, managing the entire farm as a single unit.

Contract Farming

• Contract farming entails agricultural production, including livestock and poultry, based on a pre-harvest agreement between buyers (such as food processing units and exporters) and producers (farmers or farmer organizations). The producer can sell the agricultural produce at a predetermined price in the future as per the agreement.
• Contract farming helps mitigate the risk of fluctuating market prices and demand for the producer, while the buyer reduces the risk of non-availability of quality produce.
• Important crops are banana, mango, potato, garlic, onion, tomato, etc.
• Contract farming of vegetables is done in Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra, Sunflowers in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, and tomatoes in Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan states.

Community Supported Agriculture

• It is a system that connects the producer and consumers within the food system more closely by allowing the consumer to subscribe to the harvest of a certain farm or group of farms.
• This type of farming is known as Kolkhoz in Russia. It is an alternative socio-economic model of agriculture that allows the producer and consumer to share the risks of farming.

Modern Agriculture Practice

Intensive Agriculture

• A cultivation practice characterized by the intensive use of land to achieve high yields per unit area.
• In this method, farmers employ increased quantities of fertilizers, pest controls, and various irrigation facilities. They also utilize modern technology to enhance crop yield.

Organic Agriculture

• A production system that supports the health of soils, ecosystems, and people. It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity, and cycles adapted to local conditions, avoiding the use of inputs with adverse effects.
• Organic farming integrates tradition, innovation, and science to promote a shared environment and enhance quality of life.

Sustainable Agriculture

• Refers to a farm's ability to produce food indefinitely without causing severe and irreversible damage to ecosystem health.
• Involves addressing two key issues: biophysical issues related to the long-term effects of various practices on soil properties and processes essential for crop productivity, and socioeconomic issues involving the long-term ability of farmers to obtain inputs and manage resources.

Agricultural Practices and Techniques

Various agricultural practices and techniques include:

Following or Fallow in Rotation

• In scarcity areas (dry farming) with very low rainfall, only two crops are taken in three years, contrasting with the annual cropping cycle. This practice is known as following or following in rotation.
• A fallow year or season involves leaving the field uncultivated without any crops.
• In irrigated areas, occasionally, one season is kept fallow to maintain soil fertility and minimize damage due to continuous use of irrigation and cropping.

Relay Cropping

• A cropping system is where the succeeding crop (next crop) is sown or planted when the first crop (preceding crop) reaches its physiological maturity stage or before it is ready to harvest.
• Rice, linseed, lentil, black gram, and chickpea are commonly grown in relay cropping.

Multiple Cropping

• A system where farmers cultivate two or more crops on the same land in a single calendar year, employing intensive input management practices.
• Includes inter-cropping, mixed-cropping, and sequence cropping.

Intercropping

• The practice of growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land with a definite row arrangement or in a fixed ratio.
• For example, maize, soybean, and oats are grown in a specific row arrangement with a fixed cropping ratio.

Mixed Cropping

• Involves cultivating two or more crops simultaneously on the same land without a definite row pattern or fixed ratio.
• Sowing is typically done by the broadcasting method, commonly practiced in the dryland areas of India. It is a type of subsistence farming aiming to reduce the risk of total crop failures and meet the farmer's food and fodder requirements.

Sequential Cropping

• Growing two crops in the same field one after the other within the same year.
• Examples include planting maize in the long rains and beans during the short rains.

Double Cropping

• A multiple cropping system where two crops are grown sequentially on the same piece of land within a year.
• Examples include black gram-jowar, black gram-wheat, rice-gram, and groundnut-wheat, practiced under double cropping.

Crop Rotation

• Involves changing the type of crops grown in the field each season or each year (or changing from crops to follow).
• An example is planting maize one year and beans the next year, demonstrating the concept of crop rotation.

Other types of Agricultural Technique

Major Crops of the World

• A large variety of crops are grown to meet the requirements of the growing population. Crops also supply raw materials for agro-based industries. Crops are broadly categorized are as follows

Food Crops

Important food crops are discussed below

Rice

• It is a tropical humid crop of monsoonal climate. It is a labour-intensive crop. 90% of the world's rice is grown in East and South Asia. It's different and new varieties are IR8, IR20, IR22, miracle rice, etc.
• Miracle rice is developed in the Philippines at the Rice Research Institute of Manila. It is the principal food crop for half of the population of the world.
• The rice plant (paddy) thrives in high temperatures (27°C-30°C) and requires substantial rainfall (about 100 cm) during its growth period. The ideal soil for cultivation is clay loam.
• Paddy is categorized into two groups: wet paddy and dry paddy. Floating rice can be cultivated in water up to 5 meters deep.

Productions and Yield

• Thailand and Myanmar are traditional leaders in global rice exports, with Malaysia ranking second in cultivated acreage after rubber. Approximately 95% of the grown paddy in Malaysia is wet paddy.
• High-yielding varieties like Bahagia are extensively used. China leads in rice production, followed by India, Indonesia, and Bangladesh.
• Australia boasts the highest rice yield, followed by Egypt, the USA, and Spain.
• East Asia contributes nearly 25% of the world's rice-growing area, accounting for about 40% of global rice production.
• Brazil, producing only 1.8% of the world's total rice production, is the largest rice-growing nation in South America. The USA produces about 1% of the world's rice, with Louisiana being the leading rice-growing state, followed by California, Texas, and South Carolina.
• Leading rice producers globally include China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Thailand, Japan, Myanmar, Vietnam, and Malaysia, with Thailand being the leading exporter.

Wheat

• Wheat is grown in temperate and subtropical zones and is divided into two groups based on growing seasons: Winter Wheat (middle latitudes) and Spring Wheat (colder northern regions).
• It is primarily a crop of temperate regions, requiring an annual rainfall between 40 cm to 75 cm. Loam and chernozem soils are ideal, but over-irrigation should be avoided to prevent a disease known as red rot.

Production and Yield

• Famous wheat-producing regions include the Wheat Crescent of the Pampas (Argentina), the Black Earth of the USSR, the Paris basin, the Lombardy Plain of Italy, and the lower Danube Basin.
• In Canada, almost all wheat is spring wheat, with 95% coming from the Prairie Provinces. Nebraska separates the winter wheat belt from the spring wheat belt in the USA.
• Leading wheat producers globally include China, India, the USA, Russia, Australia, Canada, France, and Turkey. The USA is the leading wheat exporter.

Maize

• Maize is a sub-tropical zone crop and ranks third after wheat and rice in terms of cultivated area.
• Known as Makkah in India, corn in the USA, and Indian corn in Europe, maize originated from the American continent.
• It requires summer temperatures between 18°C and 27°C during the day, with essential climatic factors being a period of 140 frost-free days. Rainfall ranges from 30 cm to 100 cm annually, and maize grows in a variety of soil types.
• Leading maize producers globally include the USA (one-third of production), China, Brazil, Mexico, Russia, Romania, India, and South Africa. The leading exporter is the USA.

Millets

• Also known as coarse grains, millets can grow on less fertile and sandy soils.
• A hardy crop requiring low rainfall and moderate temperatures, millets are suitable for a variety of climates.
• Temperature ranging from 20 to 27°C and rainfall between 50 cm to 75 cm is essential for their optimal growth.
• Ragi, jowar, bajra, etc., are significant millets, with leading producers globally including China, USA, India, Nigeria, Ukraine, Thailand, Russia, and Turkey. The USA is the leading exporter worldwide.

Oilseeds

Edible oils are extracted from various oilseeds. Major oilseed crops include:

Rapeseed and Mustard

• Encompassing several oilseeds like Rau, Barron, Toria, and taramira, these subtropical crops are frost-sensitive, with variable yields and low rainfall requirements.

Sesame

• Grown in areas with low rainfall, sesame requires sandy soil and is sown in the kharif season. It is cultivated in India, China, Myanmar, Sudan, Egypt, Turkey, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Thailand, and Bangladesh. India, China, and Nigeria are the top three sesame-producing countries, with the USA being the leading exporter.

Sunflower

• First cultivated in the Southern United States and Mexico, sunflower is mainly grown for oil production. It requires cold weather for germination and normal temperatures at the time of ripening. Ukraine, Argentina, Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, the United States, India, and China are among the leading producers.

Soybean

• A kharif crop primarily used for oil production, soybean thrives in all types of soils except sandy soil, with clayey soil being optimal. Leading producers include the United States, China, Japan, Brazil, Argentina, and Indonesia.

Flax

• Cultivated for both oil and fiber, flax requires cold weather and alluvial or clayey soil. Leading producers are India, Argentina, the United States, Canada, Pakistan, and France, with Canada, China, and Russia being the top three producers.

Groundnut

• Thriving in well-drained sandy loam or clay loam soil, groundnuts require temperatures of 20°C to 25°C and 50 to 75 cm of rainfall. Leading producers include China, India, the USA, Nigeria, Sudan, Senegal, and Indonesia, with China being the primary producer, followed by India and Nigeria.

Coconut

• Referred to as the 'Kalpavriksha' or the tree of heaven, the coconut palm is essentially a tropical plant, growing between 20°N and 20°S. Well-distributed rainfall of about 200 cm per year is optimal for its proper growth.

•  Major coconut-producing countries include Indonesia, the Philippines, India, New Guinea, Fiji, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Mozambique, with Indonesia leading, followed by the Philippines and India.

Fibrous Crops

Cotton

• Cotton, a crucial fibrous crop, is found in tropical and temperate zones and has a rich history in India and Egypt. The introduction of the cotton ginning machine in 1793 revolutionized its production and utilization. Varieties are categorized based on staple length, with longer staples indicating finer fibers.
• Cotton thrives in dry climates, requiring a warm climate with an ideal temperature range between 21°C and 27°C during its growth period. It can tolerate temperatures up to 40°C but not below 21°C.
• Ideally, cotton cultivation requires a light, well-drained soil capable of retaining moisture. Volcanic, black, and alluvial soils are highly suitable, demanding intensive fertilizer use.
• Intolerant to frost, cotton needs a minimum of 210 frost-free days. Moderate to light rainfall (50-100 cm), evenly distributed, is sufficient for production.
• Major cotton-producing regions include the black soil region in India, São Paulo in Brazil, the Nile delta in Egypt, the Indus valley in Pakistan, and Jazira in Sudan. Central Asian countries like Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan are also significant producers.
• Leading global producers of cotton include China, India, the USA, Brazil, Pakistan, Australia, Turkey, Uzbekistan, and Egypt. The USA is the primary exporter.

Top Five Exporting and Importing Countries of Cotton (2020-2021)

Jute

• Jute, a coarse fiber obtained from the Corchorus family plants, is the second most important fiber crop.

• Two main types of jute are Corchorus Capsularis (dark jute) and Corchorus Olitorius (expensive upland jute), requiring heavy doses of fertilizers.
• Jute flourishes in hot, tropical climates with abundant moisture and heavy rainfall, suited to regions similar to wet paddy cultivation. It often serves as a cash crop in paddy-growing areas.
• Rich soils, especially river alluvium renewed by annual floods, are ideal for jute cultivation.
• Major jute-producing regions are concentrated in the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta, with India and Bangladesh being the primary producers. Other global producers include China, Thailand, Brazil, Myanmar, Indonesia, and Taiwan.

Beverage Crops

Tea

Tea, a warm-temperate crop, is made from the leaves of the Camellia family, originating in the Chang-Jiang valley of China.

• Various tea varieties include black tea (India and Sri Lanka), green tea (China and Japan), Oolong tea (Taiwan), and yerba tea (Paraguay).
• China tea or green tea is small-leaved, while Assam tea or black tea is large-leaved.
• Tea cultivation thrives in warm and humid climates but requires proper drainage to prevent water stagnation near the roots. It flourishes best in the monsoon lands of the tropics and subtropics.

• Tea, a vital beverage crop, primarily thrives in regions between 27° South, requiring a moderate temperature around 25°C and an annual rainfall ranging between 125 cm and 750 cm.
• Ideal soils for tea cultivation are fertile, slightly acidic, and lacking calcium, with high humus content. The application of nitrogen fertilizers is crucial for maintaining soil fertility, and the presence of iron in the sub-soil is desirable.
• Leading global producers of tea include India, China, Sri Lanka, Japan, Kenya, Indonesia, Bangladesh, and Turkey. India stands out as the leading exporter, while the USA holds the position of the largest tea importer globally.

Coffee

• Coffee, the second most significant beverage crop, grows in tropical highlands at altitudes between 500 and 1500 m above sea level. It is a tropical crop, with one-third of the world population being consumers. Coffee is the second-largest beverage globally, following tea.
• Originating from the highlands of Southern Ethiopia, the coffee tree grows well in deep, porous soils with high humus content. Well-drained volcanic soils, like the terra roxa of Brazil, are considered the best for coffee cultivation.
• Large coffee plantations in Brazil are referred to as Fazenda, while Mocha coffee is mainly grown in Yemen. Karnataka in India holds the title of the largest coffee producer, with other significant producers being Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

Types of Coffee

• The three main types of coffee plants are arabica, robusta, and liberica, with robusta being the predominant variety globally. Temperatures ranging from 14°C to 25°C and a rainfall range of 40 to 80 cm are ideal for coffee cultivation.

• Leading global coffee producers include Brazil, Colombia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Ivory Coast, Mexico, Ghana, Cameroon, and India. Brazil also holds the top position as the leading exporter, with Sao Paulo being known as the Coffee Bowl of the world.

Commercial or Cash Crops

Sugarcane

• Sugarcane, a warm temperate crop and a member of the grass family, has a tall tropical variety with a hard, thick stem. Originating possibly in Eastern Asia, sugarcane accounts for about 60% of the world's sugar requirements.
• Sugarcane requires constantly high temperatures between 21°C and 27°C, with temperatures below 20°C restricting its growth. Frost is detrimental to this crop, and it thrives in the hot and humid climate of tropical regions.
• With a rainfall requirement of 75 to 120 cm, sugarcane is less water-efficient. Suitable soils for cultivation include loam, clay, and alluvial. Leading global producers of sugarcane include Brazil, India, China, Pakistan, Thailand, Mexico, Cuba, and Colombia.
• Cuba is known as the sugar bowl of the world, while Brazil takes the lead as the largest producer and exporter of sugar, boasting the highest per capita consumption.

Sugar Beet

• Sugar beet, a temperate crop and a root crop of the beet family, is typically cultivated as a rotation crop. It thrives well in loamy and clayey loams.
• Cotton, a product of tropical and temperate zones, has ancient roots in India and Egypt. The discovery of the cotton ginning machine in 1793 revolutionized its production and utilization. Cotton varieties are categorized by staple length, with longer staples yielding finer fibers.
• Thriving in dry climates, cotton requires a warm climate with an ideal temperature range of 21°C to 27°C. It can tolerate high temperatures up to 40°C but not below 21°C.
• Ideal soils are light, well-drained, and capable of retaining moisture. Volcanic, black, and alluvial soils are most suitable. Intensive fertilizer use is necessary.
• Frost is detrimental, requiring 210 frost-free days. Moderate to light rainfall (50-100 cm) evenly distributed supports production.
• Major cotton-producing regions include Sao Paulo in Brazil, Nile delta in Egypt, Indus valley in Pakistan, and Jazira in Sudan.
• Leading global producers are China, India, USA, Brazil, Pakistan, Australia, Turkey, Uzbekistan, and Egypt. The USA is the primary exporter.

Rubber

• Rubber, a tropical wet zone crop, is the latex of the hevea brasiliensis tree, widely found in the Amazon and Zaire basins. Rubber is gathered in the Amazon basin by Seringueiros. Vulcanization enhanced its utility.
• China leads in synthetic rubber production. Liberia claims the world's largest single plantation.
• Ideal conditions include an equatorial climate, high temperature (27°C), and evenly distributed rainfall of 150 cm throughout the year.
• Deep, well-drained, friable soils, including acidic ones, are suitable.
• Major producers are Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, India, China, Sri Lanka, Liberia, and Brazil. Thailand is the leading exporter.
• In India, Kerala leads in rubber production, followed by Tamil Nadu, Tripura, and Karnataka.

Tobacco

• Tobacco, a crop of tropical and subtropical zones, is a broadleaved annual plant native to tropical America. It is now cultivated globally in warm temperate, subtropical, or tropical climates.
• Three types are Nicotiana Rustica (Asia, Africa, Latin America), Turkish or Oriental (Asia, Oceania), and Virginia tobacco (North America).
• Ideal conditions include a temperature exceeding 18°C in the warmest month, moderate rainfall, and rich, regularly fertilized soil.
• Rooting period is 120 to 180 days with a warm growing season.
• Leading producers are the USA, India, Brazil, Turkey, Japan, and Korea. The USA is the primary exporter.

Pulses

• Pulses serve as a supplementary protein source in diets based on cereals and starchy foods. They enrich the soil by adding nitrogen and improving soil properties.
• Well-suited to diverse environments, pulses fit into various cropping systems due to adaptability, low input requirements, fast growth, nitrogen-fixing, and weed-smothering abilities.
• Dry beans, including green gram and black gram, are essential pulse crops globally.
• India is the largest producer, consumer, and importer of pulses. Major exporting countries are Canada, Brazil, and the USA.

Leading Producers of Major Crops of the World

Agricultural Research Centers in the world

Important Agricultural Revolution 

Important Agricultural Revolution 

Some Concepts Related to Agriculture

Several important concepts related to agriculture include:

Crop Productivity:

• Definition: The amount of crop production per hectare or per worker.
• Extensive Agriculture: Low per-hectare productivity.
• Intensive Agriculture: High per-hectare productivity.
• Indian Scenario: Lagging behind in both extensive and intensive conditions due to insufficient agricultural development.

Agricultural Efficiency:

• Definition: Involves both profitability and productivity.
• Focus: Maximum production in minimum time at a specific price.
• Note: States with high crop productivity may still exhibit low efficiency.

Crop Intensity:

• Definition: Optimal agricultural utilization of land.
• Involves: Raising the number of crops from the same field within an agricultural year.
• In countries like India, where increasing arable land is challenging, the imperative is to cultivate more than one crop in a year.
• Crop Intensity Formula:

Crop Intensity=Gross Cropped Area Net Sown Area × 100

Crop Intensity= Net Sown Area Gross Cropped Area  ×100

Animal Husbandry:

• Animal husbandry is the science of caring for and breeding domestic animals, aiming to develop genetic traits such as high yield and disease resistance for the benefit of humanity. It encompasses the breeding and raising of livestock, including buffaloes, cows, goats, camels, horses, sheep, poultry, and fisheries.
• Asia holds approximately 40% of the world's domestic animal population.
• Well-developed pastures are prevalent in Western Europe, the USA, Australia, and New Zealand, leading to advanced dairy farming in these regions.
• Arid and semi-arid areas are suitable for sheep rearing, while dry and hilly regions are conducive to goat rearing. Pig farming is prevalent in cereal-producing regions, especially maize.

Regional Distribution of Animal Husbandry:

• Prairies and Western coastal regions of North America
• Velds region of South Africa
• Llanos and Pampas region of South America
• Downs of Australia and temperate grasslands of New Zealand
• East of Caspian and North of the Arabian Sea

Significance of Animal Husbandry:

• Provides milk products, meat, and poultry.
• Facilitates livestock production.
• Artificial insemination enhances yield.
• Ensures nutritional security.
• Contributes to the country's GDP.
• Alleviates poverty.
• Supplements agricultural income.

Products of Animal Husbandry:

Milk and Milk Products:

• Dairy industry flourishes due to geographical factors like temperate wet climate, natural pastures, yielding animals, and low population density.
• Major regions with developed dairy industries: Western Europe, USA, Canada, Russia, Australia, and New Zealand.
• India leads in milk production.
• Notable dairy exports include cheese, yogurt, butter, paneer, and powdered milk. Edam cheese from the Netherlands and Denmark's high-quality butter are renowned globally.

Meat:

• Obtained from cattle, buffalo, sheep, and pigs, meat is in high demand in colder regions.
• China leads in meat production, followed by the USA and Brazil.
• England is the largest meat importer, while the USA is the primary exporter of pork, followed by Brazil and the European Union, collectively producing 47% of the world's beef.

Fibre/Wool Products:

• Sheep, goats, camels, llamas, etc., serve as sources of wool, with sheep providing superior quality.
• Dry and temperate climates are suitable for rearing sheep.
• Leading wool-producing countries: Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, Africa, Russia, and the USA.
• Murray-Darling Basin in Australia hosts a commercially valuable species.

Poultry Farming:

• Poultry farming involves the cultivation of domesticated birds like chickens, turkeys, ducks, and geese for their meat and eggs. It offers numerous advantages, such as providing essential food items, serving as an efficient source of high-quality protein, ensuring a quick return on investment, generating income throughout the year, offering part-time and full-time job opportunities, enhancing food security, and being manageable by women and children.
• Working Animals: In many regions, domesticated animals play crucial roles as working or draught animals. Horses, donkeys, mules, and yaks are employed for transportation and agricultural activities. Some animals like sheep and goats are utilized for weed removal. In areas prone to wildfires, sheep and goats graze on dry shrubs, reducing the risk of fires.

Animal Breeding:

• Another facet of animal husbandry is animal breeding, aiming to develop high-yielding animals and enhance desirable qualities. Two main types of breeding include:

Inbreeding:

• Mating closely related superior males with superior females within the same breed for 4 to 6 generations.
• Superior males and females among the progenies are further mated to develop Mendelian pure lines, which are homozygous.
• Continued close inbreeding can lead to decreased fertility and productivity, known as inbreeding depression.

Outbreeding:

Breeding unrelated animals in three different ways:

• Out-crossing: Mating unrelated individuals of the same breed without a common ancestor for the past 4 to 6 generations.
• Crossbreeding: Mating a superior male of one breed with a superior female of another breed to yield progeny with combined qualities.
• Interspecific hybridization: Mating males and females across different related species.
• Controlled breeding experiments utilize artificial insemination, and techniques like Multiple Ovulation Embryo Transfer Technology (MOET) enhance the chances of obtaining successful hybrids.

Apiculture:

• Maintenance of honeybee hives for honey and beeswax production is known as beekeeping or apiculture. Honey, a nutritionally rich food with traditional medicinal uses, is derived from this practice. Key aspects for successful beekeeping include selecting suitable hive locations, understanding bee nature and habits, catching and hiving swarms, handling and collecting honey and beeswax, and managing beehives in different seasons.

Fishing:

• Fish, a protein-rich food, encompasses around 30,000 species worldwide, adapting to diverse environmental conditions in marine, freshwater, tropical, frigid zones, rivers, lakes, and glaciers. Coastal areas engage in fishing industries utilizing a range of methods from traditional to highly advanced.
• Leading fish-producing nations include China, Indonesia, India, Vietnam, USA, Russia, and Japan. The SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging Technique) is employed to locate fish underwater.
• Drifters are utilized for capturing fish in deep waters, while trawlers are designed for catching fish in shallow waters. Notable fish varieties encompass Herring, Ekru, Sardine, Haddock, Cod, Tuna, Mackerel, Pilchard, and Hake.
• According to the 3rd UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in effect since 1994, coastal states can establish exclusive economic zones (extending 200 miles from their shores) to have complete control over marine resources.

Aquaculture:

• Aquaculture, also known as fish farming or pisciculture, involves the breeding, growing, and harvesting of fish and other aquatic plants for commercial use. Fish farms are situated in freshwater lakes, indoor tanks, or saltwater cages in the open sea. The National Fisheries Development Board, established in 2006, aims to boost fish production in India.
• Factors Affecting Fish Distribution:
  • Shallow coastal waters are ideal due to abundant food supply from continental erosion, providing mineral and organic matter, along with sufficient sunlight penetration.
  • Coastal upwelling zones witness high rates of primary production.
  • Conventional mixing ensures oxygen supply and favorable nutrient dispersion.
  • Mixing of warm and cold water, as observed in Newfoundland banks, Dogger banks, and the Sea of Japan.
  • Broken coastlines with numerous indentations offer excellent berthing facilities.
  • A temperate climate with temperatures below 20°C is optimal for marine life.

Major Fishing Grounds:

• Coastal Margins of Middle Latitudes: Largest fish-producing areas with concentrated marketable species.
• North-West Pacific Region: Extends from the outer Aleutian islands to the Central Pacific, yielding salmon, herring, halibut, cod, and king crab.
• East Atlantic and Adjacent Waters of the Arctic: Encompasses Iceland to the Mediterranean, including the North Sea with the exploited Dogger Bank.
• North-West Atlantic Region: Includes Grand Bank, Georges Bank, st. Prime Bank, Sanibel Island Bank, Bounds, etc.
• North-East Pacific Region: Extends from Alaska to California, renowned for cod, herring, haddock, salmon, tuna, halibut, and sardines.
• South-East Pacific Region: Known for anchovy harvest off the coast of Peru, benefiting from the Peru current and coastal upwelling.

Prelims Facts

• spaces between rows of planted trees is called

- Alley Cropping (UPPSC (Mains) 2007

• Large amount of labour is applied on small-sized holding under the system of

Oriental Farming (JPSC (Pre) 2013)

• Taungya' agriculture is practised in

-Myanmar [UPPSC (Pre) 1999)

• Viticulture refers to studying and production of Grapes

(UPPSC (Pre) 2014, MPPSC (Pre) 2013/

• Truck farming is associated with the cultivation of

Vegetables (MPPSC (Pre) 2022)

• Azolla - anabaena biofertiliser is used for crop

- Rice (UPPSC (Pre) 2008)

• Under the international agreement on agriculture, the green box includes economic assistance for

- Agricultural Research and Plant Protection [UPPSC (Mains) 2009

• Systems of Rice Intensification' of cultivation results in -Reduced seed requirement,

methane production and electricity consumption [IAS (Pre) 2022)

• Apiculture is the scientific method related to the production of

-Honey [UPPSC (Pre) 2012]

• A plant which was nitrogen deficiency will show symptoms like

-Stunted growth, Pale green and Yellow leaves [MPPSC (Pre) 2008]

• Who used the method of ranking coefficient for the first time in India, in order to calculate agricultural productivity? 

- Professor MG Kendall [MPPSC (Pre) 2011]

• Sand filter is required in Drip irrigation system to remove 

- Algae and Debris [Manipur PSC (Pre) 2014]

• The leading producer of both wheat and rice in the world is

China (UPPSC (Main) 2006)

• Which region of the world is called the 'Sugar Bowl of the world?

Cuba [UKPSC (Pre) 2021]

• Which country has the largest area under rice cultivation?

India (UPPSC (Mains) 2016)

• Two largest producers of beets in the world are

-France and Russia (UPPSC (Mains) 2010]

• The largest producer of bananas in the world is

India [RAS/RTS (Pre) 2003)

• Two major producers of natural rübber in the world are 

-Thailand and Indonesia (UPPSC (Maina) 2006

• Roburta is produced in Africa, which is a variety of 

Coffee [IPSC (Pre) 2013]

• Apple is commercially cultivated in which region?

-Temperate and Subtropical regions [UPPSC (Pre) 1990)

•  Walnut, Coconut and Cashewnut are produced in which region?

- Tropical Region (UPPSC (Pre) 1990)

• Large amount of labour is applied on small sized

holdings under the system of -Commercial Horticulture [JPSC (Pre) 2013]

• Which country is the largest producer of saffron in the world? 

- Iran (65th BPSC (Pre) 2019)

• Soil found in Coniferous forest region is known as 

- Podzol (JPSC (Pre) 2003]

• Which countries are included in the 'Golden Crescent'?

-Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan [UPPSC (Mains) 2007]

• In which region of the world, the production of citrus fruit is well developed? 

- Mediterrancan Regions (UPPSC (Pre) 2020)

• Most attractive, warmest and lightest wool 'Shahtoosh' is made from hairs of

Chiru (UPPSC (Pre) 2006)

• The 'Mocha' coffee is grown in which country?

-Yemen [RAS/RTS (Pre) 2010]

• Which group of plants are all 'Day Neutral' 

Tomato, Pea and Cotton [UPPSC (Mains) 2015]

•  jaya is the name of high yielding variety for 

- Rice (JPSC (Pre) 2013]

• The most important fishing grounds of the world are

found in the regions where? Warm and Cold Oceanic Currents meet (UPPSC (Pre) 2013]

• Which fishing banks is located off the coast of the 

-Dogger Bank (MPPSC (Pre) 2001] United Kingdom

•  Which fish is suitable for fish farming? 

Rohu (MPSC (Pre) 2012]

•  The largest fish exporting regions of the world is 

- North-West Pacific Region (APSC (Pre) 2014)

Self Check

1. A cropping system where crops are grown in the inter spaces between rows of planted trees is called

UPPSC (Mains) 2007

(a) Relay cropping

(b) Mixed cropping

(c) Inter cropping

(d) Alley cropping

2. Which one of the following is not a type of shifting cultivation?

UPPSC (Mains) 2006

(a) Jhooming

(b) Fang

(c) Milpa

(d) Fazenda

3. Truck farming is associated with

MPPSC (Pre) 2022

(a) vegetables

(b) milk

(c) cereals

(d) poultry

4. Which of the following pairs is not correctly matched?

5.Consider the following organisms.

IAS (Pre) 2013

1. Agaricus
2. Nostoc
3. Spirogyra

Which of the above is/are used as biofertilizer/ fertilizers?

(a) 1 and 2

(b) Only 2

(c) 2 and 3

(d) Only 3

6. Assertion (A) A plant which has nitrogen deficiency will show symptoms like stunted growth and pale green and yellow leaves.

Reason (R) Nitrogen is responsible for green leaf growth. MPPSC (Pre) 2008

Codes

(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.

(c) A is true, but R is false.

(d) A is false, but R is true.

7. How is permaculture farming different from conventional chemical farming?

IAS (Pre) 2021

1. Permaculture farming discourages monocultural practices but in conventional chemical

farming, monocultural practices are predominant.

2. Conventional chemical farming can cause an increase in soil salinity but the occurrence of such phenomenon is not observed in permaculture farming.
3. Conventional chemical Famacg is easily possible in semi-arid regions but permaculture farming is not as easily possible in such regions.
4. Practice of mulching is very important in conventional chemical farming.

permaculture farming Barmit necessarily so in

Select the correct answer by using the codes given Belon.

(a) 1 and 3

(b) 1,2 and 4

(d) 2 and 3

(c) Only 4

8. Which one of the following statements about fertilizers is not correct?

(a) Urea is a phosphorus containing fertilizers.

(b) Application of fertilizer to the soil increases fertility of the soil.

(c) Urea can be prepared by action of ammonia and carbon dioxide under high pressure and at high temperature.

(d) Urea contains more nitrogen than other fertilizers.

9. With reference to the circumstances in Indian agriculture, the concept of conservation agriculture assumes significance. Which of the following fall under conservation agriculture?

IAS (Pre) 2018

1. Avoiding the monoculture practices.
2. Adopting minimum tillage.
3. Avoiding the cultivation of plantation crops
4. Using crop residues to cover the soil surface.
5. Adopting spatial and temporal crop sequencing/crop rotations.

Select the correct answer by using the codes given below.

(a) 1, 3 and 4

(b) 2, 3, 4 and 5

(c) 2, 4 and 5

(d) 1, 2, 3 and 5

10. Which one of the following agricultural practices is eco friendly?

UPPSC (Pre) 1999

(a) Organic farming

(b) Shifting cultivation

(c) Cultivation of high yielding varieties

(d) Growing plants in glass houses

11. Who used the method of ranking coefficient for the first time in India in order to calculate agricultural productivity?

MPPSC (Pre) 2011

(a) Prof Mohd Shafi

(b) Prof Jasbin Singh

(c) Prof MG Kendall

(d) Prof Dudley Stamp

12. Growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same field in a definite pattern is known as

(a) Mixed cropping

(b) Inter cropping

(c) Mixed farming

(d) Hybrid farming

13. System of rice intensification' of cultivation, in practiced, results in which alternate wetting and drying of rice fields is Practiced results in IAS (Pre) 2022

1. reduced seed requirement
2. reduced methane production
3. reduced electricity consumption

Select the correct answer by using the codes given below.

(a) 1 and 2

(b) 2 and 3

(c) 1 and 2

(d) All of these

14. Which of the following countries has the largest area under rich cultivation?

UPPSC (Mains) 2016

(a) China

(b) India

(c) Japan

(d) Philippines

15. The 'Rice Gene bank' of the world is situated in

(a) China

(b) Philippines

(c) Japan

(d) India

16. In which one of the following countries is intensive subsistence agriculture not predominantly practiced?

(a) India

(b) Japan 

(c) Canada 

(d) Indonesia

17. Among the following densely populated regions, which one does not depend directly on agriculture?

MPPSC (Pre) 2022

(a) Lower valley of river Nile

(b) Eastern Plains of China

(c) Java Island

(d) North - Eastern United States of America

18. Among the following crops, which one is the most important anthropogenic source of both methane and nitrous oxide?

IAS (Pre) 2022

(a) Cotton

(b) Rice

(c) Sugarcane

(d) Wheat

19.Which of the following regions of the world, the production of citrus fruits is well developed?

(a) Monsoon regions

(b) Tropical highlands regions

(c) Mediterranean regions

(d) Equatorial regions

20. Consider the following statements associated with plantation agriculture and select the correct answer by using the codes given below.

UPPSC(Pre) 1998

1. Mostly tropical plantations are located in lowlands.
2. Tropical plantations are found in bunches along the sea coast.
3. Favorable physical conditions for rubber plantation occur in Amazon Basin but lacks workers.

Codes

(a) 1 and 2

(b) 2 and 3

(c) 1 and 3

(d) All of these

21. Which of the following pairs) of crops and products is/are correctly matched?

1. Food crop: Ragi
2. Cash crop : Jute
3. Plantation crop: Coconut

Select the correct answer by using the codes given below.

Codes

(a) Only 1

(b) 2 and 3 

(c) 1, 2 and 3 

(d) Only 3

22. Among the following, which one is the least water efficient crop?

(a) Sugarcane

(b) Sunflower

(c) Pearl millet

(d) Red gram

23. Which one of the following fishing banks is located off the coast of the United Kingdom?

(a) Great Fisher bank

(b) Grand bank

(c) Dogger bank

(d) Reed Bank

Know Right Answer

1 (d)

2 (d)

3 (a)

4 (c)

5 (b)

6(a)

7 (b)

8 (a)

9 (c)

10 (b)

11 (c)

12 (b)

13 (d)

14 (b)

15 (b)

16 (c)

17 (c)

18 (b)

19 (c)

20  (b)

21 (c)

22 (a)

23 (c)