• India a country in South Asia derives its name from the Indus River. As we discussed so many characteristics of Ancient Indian History, but still we have certain features and outlooks that are relevant and don't fall under any of the previous chapters.

Introduction

• India, often referred to as the Cradle of Human Civilization, played a pivotal role in shaping the foundations of modern society. 
• Many cornerstones of contemporary disciplines such as science, medicine, mathematics, metaphysics, religion, and astronomy find their origins in India. 
• Throughout the evolution of civilization and states, various facets of subjects were cultivated in ancient India, with centers of education, science, and technology—including mathematics, astronomy, and astrology—flourishing as integral components of this rich cultural heritage.

Brief Timeline of Ancient History

Education and Literature

• In India, education has held significant importance since ancient times, recognized as essential for both physical and spiritual upliftment, as well as for the effective fulfillment of various responsibilities.
• The emphasis on education encompassed character building, understanding civic and social duties, and the preservation and dissemination of culture.
• During the Rig Vedic period, the primary focus of education was the study of Vedic literature. As time progressed into the later Vedic period, the texts of the Brahmins became the central subjects of education. 
• The curriculum expanded during the Sutra era, with foreign travelers contributing to the inclusion of various subjects in ancient Indian literature.
• Descriptions reveal that the educational curriculum comprised the study of 4 Vedas, 6 Vedangas, 14 Disciplines, 18 Crafts, 64 Arts, and more. Hiuen Tsang and Al-Biruni noted the prevalence of education in grammar and astrology in India.
• A distinctive feature of the ancient Indian education system was the Gurukul system, where students resided in hostels connected to educational centers, known as Antevasi or Acharya Kulvasi.
• The ancient education system lacked the practice of examinations and formal degrees. Temples played a crucial role in promoting education in Indian culture, with the Ghatika school associated with the Pallava temples serving as a notable example.

Some of the Premier Education Centers of India of India are as follows

Taxila (Takshashila):

• Located in the Rawalpindi district of present-day Pakistan, Taxila was a major ancient center of education.
• Renowned figures such as King Prasenjit of Kosala, Jivaka (the royal physician of Magadha), the eminent politician Chanakya, and the Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu received their education at Taxila.
• Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Maurya Empire, received his military education at Taxila.

Nalanda:

• Founded by Gupta ruler Kumaragupta I, known as Mahendraditya, Nalanda University stands out among ancient Indian education centers.
• The university boasted eight large and three hundred small lecture rooms, attracting students not only from India but also from China, Mongolia, Tibet, Korea, and Central Asia.
• During the 7th century, Chinese scholars I Qing and Xuan Zang visited Nalanda, with Hiuen Tsang studying there for 18 months.
• Shilabhadra served as the Vice-Chancellor during Hiuen Tsang's time, and 1-Tsing prepared copies of 400 Sanskrit texts in the university's library, Dharmaganj.

Vallabhi:

• Established by Maitrakvanshi ruler Bhattarak, Vallabhi was a renowned center of education and culture in Western India.
• It served as a major hub for the education of Hinayana Buddhism, attracting scholars from various countries to engage in discussions and debates.

Vikramshila:

• Pala King Dharmapala founded the Mahavihara of Vikramshila, another significant ancient university.
• Comprising six colleges, each equipped with a central hall and 108 teachers, Vikramshila was home to notable scholars like Dipankar Srigyan, who served as Vice-Chancellor.
• Graduates were honored with titles by Pala rulers, with distinctions such as Pandit, Mahapandit, Upadhyaya, and Acharya marking different levels of scholarly achievement.
• Unfortunately, in AD 1203, the Muslim invader Bakhtiyar Khilji devastated Vikramshila University, leading to the destruction of the institution and the massacre of monks.

Religion

• In India, nature was personified and worshipped by man, due to which the Vedic religion or Brahmana religion developed in an influential manner.
• Along with Brahmanism religion, Jainism and Buddhism also emerged in India. Christianity emerged in India around the AD first century, yet it could not spread much in ancient times.
• Buddhism also gradually disappeared from the country. Some other religions also emerged and developed in ancient times, which are as follows-

Vaishnavism

• Vaishnavism, one of the major forms of modern Hinduism, is characterized by devotion to the God Vishnu and his incarnations (avatars).
• The first mention of this religion dates back to the sixth century BC. It is found in the Upanishads.
• The earliest mention of Vasudeva, Devikaran comes from Panini's Ashtadhyayi. Megasthenes mentions the worship of Krishna (Heracles) at Shurasena (Mathura).
• Vasudev Krishna was considered an incarnation of the Vedic God Vishnu. Later, it was equated with Narayan. The worshippers of Narayan are called Pancharatrik.
• The main deities of Pancharatra Vyuh are Vasudev, Lakshmi, Sankarshana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha.

• In South India, followers of Vaishnavism were revered as Alvar saints.
• Early Alvar saints included names like Piyagai, Poodam, and Peya, while prominent figures such as Tirumangai, Periya Alvar, Andal, Nammalvar, Tirumalishai, and Madhur Kavi also emerged.
• Andal, the sole female among the Alvars, was recognized as Krishna's love interest.

Bhagavat Sampradaya:

• The Bhagavat Sampradaya emphasized the incarnation doctrine outlined in the Bhagavad Gita, particularly focusing on the worship of the four Vrishni heroes, including Vasudeva Krishna, known as Chaturvyuha.
• Chaturvyuha Puja was first mentioned in the Vishnu Samhita, with evidence dating back to AD 1000 from Mora near Mathura.
• The Chaturvyuha comprised Sankarshana, Pradyumna, Aniruddha, and Samba.

Shaivism:

• Shiva, referred to as Rudra in the Rig Veda, had evidence of worship in the Indus Valley Civilization and Vedic period.
• The Atharva Veda mentions seven names of Shiva, while the Taittiriya Samhita and Svetashvara Upanishad discuss Shiva.
• Linga worship was first clear in the Matsya Purana, and Megasthenes mentioned the worship of Dionysus (Shiva) in the fourth century.
• The Vamana Purana mentioned four types of Shaiva communities: Pashupat, Kapalik, Kalamukh, and Lingayat or Veershaivism.
• Pashupat: Considered the oldest Shaiva sect, founded by Lakulish.

Followers, called Pancharatriks, applied ashes on their heads and wore Rudraksha beads.

• Kapalika: Known for its fierce and demonic nature, offering Sura and human sacrifices to Bhairav.
• Followers practiced extreme rituals like drinking Surasundari, eating Jatajut, and applying cremation ashes.
• Kalamukha: More extremist than Kapalika, mentioned as Mahavratdhar in Shiva Purana.
• Lingayat or Veerashaivism: Prevalent in South India (Karnataka), worshippers focused on Shivling instead of idols.

Shaktism (Shakta Dharma):

• Rig Veda's 10th Mandala includes a Sukta on the worship of Shakti, known as Tantrik Devi Sukta.
• Names like Uma, Parvati, Ambika, Hemvati, Rudrani, and Bhavani are found in Vedic literature.
• Markandeya Purana extols the glory of the goddess.
• Two classes of Shaktas are Kaulmargi and Samayachari, with Kaul Sadhaks emphasizing complete monism, recognizing no distinctions between opposites.
• The Kaul Margis, followers of Shaktism, engage in Panchamkara worship, involving alcohol, meat, fish, mudra, and sex.
• Shaktism places significant importance on Kundalini, a mystical power within its spiritual practices.

Sun Worship:

• Sun worship is evidenced in prehistoric cultures and the Harappan Civilization through symbols like Chakra, Swastik, and Kiran Mandal.
• Rig Veda describes various characteristics of the Sun, and its worship is continued in later Vedic literature.
• Sun worship persisted into the Gupta and post-Gupta periods, with Hiuen-Tsang detailing a Sun temple built by Shambh on the Chandrabhaga riverbanks.
• The Vrihat Samhita mentions the establishment of the Saur dynasty in North India by the Magas, who authorized to install of Sun God idols in temples.
• Mago, recognized by Al-Biruni, was hailed as a true worshipper of the Surya idol.
• Historical inscriptions like the Mandsaur Inscription of Kumaragupta and the Indore copper plate of Skandagupta document Sun temple constructions.
• The Hill Matrichet in Gwalior, as per the Hun king Mihirkul's inscription, housed a Sun temple built by Mandsaur.
• Harsha, too, was a devotee of Sun worship, as noted by Hiuen Tsang regarding the famous Sun temple at Pur (Multan) with a gold idol.
• Renowned Sun worship centers include Modhera in Gujarat, Osia in Rajasthan, and Konark.

Science and Technology:

• Ancient India experienced significant progress in science and technology.
• Astronomy developed due to the celestial significance of planets being considered deities.
• The science of grammar and linguistics emerged as Brahmins and priests prioritized the correct pronunciation of Vedic hymns and mantras.
• Starting in the third century BC, mathematics, astronomy, and medicine saw independent developments.
• Ancient Indians developed three distinctive notation systems, including the decimal system, with the use of decimals starting in the fifth century AD.
• Numerology, dating back to 500 BC, is evident in Ashoka's third-century inscriptions. Indians made significant contributions to Algebra, inventing zero in the second century BC.
• The brick buildings in Harappa indicate the people's proficient knowledge of measurement and geometry in North-West India.
• Apastamba applied practical geometry to construct sacrificial altars, detailing acute, obtuse, and right angles.
• Baudhayana played a crucial role in presenting and developing geometry principles, including rules for converting a circle into a square and vice versa.
• The value of Pi (π) was first calculated in Baudhayana's formulas, with Aryabhatta providing its purest value.
• Aryabhatta's exploration of the triangle area led to the birth of trigonometry, with the Law of Sines of angles detailed in Aryabhatta's Surya Siddhanta.
• Brahmagupta, around the seventh century, presented formulas in Brahma Sphuta Siddhanta for circular and cyclic quadrilaterals, squares, rectangles, etc.
• Mathematician Bhaskar's Siddhanta Shiromani covers Lilavati, Algebra, Grahaganita, and Gola, introducing the Cyclic method to solve undecidable quadratic equations.
• Bhaskaracharya, credited with giving zero its undivided status, theorized gravity before Newton.
• Varahamihira, a sixth-century scholar, is recognized as the pioneer of astrology, composing Panchasiddhantika, Brihat Jataka, Brihat Samhita, and Laghu Jataka.
• The Vrihat Samhita describes Yavanas as venerable, like sages, due to their role as the originators of astrology.
• Indian texts mention five principles of astrology: Paitamah, Vashishtha, Surya, Polish, and Romak, with Romak and Polish attributed to Greek influence.
• Maharishi Kanad (sixth century BC), founder of atomism and promoter of Vaiseshik philosophy, is credited with starting physics in India.
• Ancient chemistry, known as Rasavidya or Rasashastra, is regulated by Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna, credited with the discovery of Mercury.
• Significant progress in steel manufacturing marked advancements in technology and science.
• The Atharva Veda mentions medicines, with principles and practices of Ayurveda outlined in its verses.
• The principle of "Vishasya Vishmaudham," poison as the antidote for poison, is mentioned in the Atharva Veda, serving as the basis for modern homeopathic medicine.
• Renowned scholar Muni Atreya, from the famous university Takshashila, contributed to Ayurveda with the Atreya Samhita, emphasizing water therapy.
• In the second century AD, Ayurvedic scholars Sushruta and Charak made significant contributions. Charaka Samhita, an encyclopedia of Indian medicine, is based on the teachings of Maharishi Aitreya.

Major Samvats in Ancient India:

• Vikram Samvat: A gap of 470 years is mentioned between Mahavira Nirvana and Vikram Samvat. Also known as Krit Samvat and Malav Samvat, related to Vikramaditya, it began in 57 BC.
• Saka Samvat: Started by Vikramaditya after defeating his successors, marking the beginning in AD 78. 
• The present National Panchang of India is based on Saka Samvat.
• Gupta Samvat: Used in Gupta kings' writings, it was founded by Chandragupta I in AD 319.
• Vallabhi Samvat: Started by King Vallabh 241 years after the Saka era, dating back to AD 319.
• Harsh Samvat: Related to Harshvardhan, it finds mention in the writings of Harsha, contemporary Uttaragupta kings, and Nepali writings, with a probable beginning around AD 606.

Prelims Facts

• Which ruler of Bengal founded an ancient university named Vikramashila?

- Dharmapala /CGPSC (Pre) 2011)

• Which date of 365 days a normal year based on the Gregorian Calendar corresponds to the first Chaitra of the Rashtriya Panchang calendar based on Saka Samvat?

- 22nd March or 21st March (IAS (Pre) 2014)

• The temples of Khajuraho were built by the rulers of which dynasty?

- Chandel IMPPSC (Pre) 2014]

• The historical work 'Gaudavaho' like Kalhanas Rajatarangini was written by

- Vakpati |JPSC (Pre) 2021]

• In which rock-cut caves, the eleven Bodhisattva images is depicted?

- Kanheri [UPPSC (Pre) 2017]

• Who is the protagonist of the play 'Malvikagnimitra' written by Kalidasa?

- Agnimitra [UPPSC (Pre) 1998]

• The cave temple built by the Rashtrakutas in the Ellora mountains are located in

- Aurangabad (Maharashtra) [UPPSC (Pre) 2009]

• The famous book of 'Panchtantra was originally written by whom?

- Vishnu Sharma IMPPSC (Pre) 2013]

• Which is the largest and the tallest surviving temple in Orissa?

- Lingaraja temple [UPPSC (Pre) 2010]

• 'Lilavati' a treatise on mathematics was written by

- Bhaskaracharya [UPPSC (Pre) 2017]

•  Sonagiri, the highest among 103 Jain temples, lies in the proximity of

- Datia [UPPSC (Pre) 2005]

•  Who is considered to be the first lawgiver of India?

- Manu [UPPSC (Mains) 2004]

•  In which epic it was told 'what is here is found elsewhere, but if not here is found nowhere else

- Mahabharata [UPPSC (Pre) 1992]

• At which place does the Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain rock-cut caves co-exist?

- Ellora [UPPSC (Mains) 2002, 2006]

• The Panchasiddhantika of Varahamihira is based on which astronomy?

- Greek astronomy [UPPSC (Pre) 2014)

•  With reference to the History of ancient India, Bhavbhuti, Hastimalla, and K Shemeshvara were famous

- Playwrights IIAS (Pre) 2021)

•  The famous Cave temple of Elephanta are ascribed to which dynasty?

- Rashtrakutas

• TUKPSC

- (Pre) 2010, UPPSC (Mains) 2009/

• The rock-cut caves in Western India are located in

- Nasik, Ellora and Ajanta (IAS (Pre) 1993)

•  Which dynasty constructed the Ellora Kailasa Temple?

- Rashtrakutas [UPPSC (Mains) 2005

• Sonagiri, the highest among 103 Jain temples, lies in the proximity of

- Datia [UPPSC (Pre) 2005]

• NaimiSharanya famous pilgrimage is located in which district?

- Sitapur [UPPSC (Pre) 2002)

• With reference to the cultural history of India, the term Panchayatan refers to

- A style of temple construction [IAS (Pre) 2014]

• Where is the famous temple of Jagannath located?

- Orissa [MPPSC (Pre) 1995)

•  The temple of Bhubaneshwar and Puri was built in which style?

- Nagara Style [UPPSC (Pre) 1997)

•  The idols of Lord Jagannath, Subhadra, and Balbhadra in Sanctum Sanctorum at Jagannath Puri Temple are made up of

- Wood ICGPSC (Pre) 2019)

• The Seven Ratha Temple of Mahabalipuram was built by which ruler?

- Pallavas [UPPSC (Mains) 2014)

• The painting of Bodhisattva Padmapani is one of the most famous and oft illustrated paintings at

- Ajanta (IAS (Pre) 2017)

Self Check

1. The Chinese Scholars, I-Qing and Xuan Zang visited ancient Nalanda University during the?

(a) AD fifth Century

(b) AD seventh Century

(c) AD tenth Century

(d) AD ninth Century

2. Among the education centers of ancient India, the most notable is the Nalanda University. Name the ruler who established it.

(a) Chandragupta II

(b) Ashoka

(c) Skandagupta

(d) Kumaragupta I

3. According to I-Tsing, at which of the following places did the scholars of all the countries used to gather and debate on various theories?

(a) Vikramshila

(b) Takshila

(c) Vallabhi

(d) Nalanda

4. Which ruler of Bengal founded ancient university named Vikramshila?

CGPSC (Pre) 2011

(a) Dharmapala

(b) Gopala

(c) Devpala

(d) Mahipala

5. Which one of the following statements is not true?

(a) In South India, the Vaishnava worshippers of the religion are known as Alvar.

(b) The worshippers of Vaishnava religion in South India are known as Nayanar saints.

(c) Posagai, Pudum and Peya were amongst the early Alvar saints.

(d) Andal was the only woman among the Alvar, who was a devotee of Krishna.

6. Consider the following statements.

1. Shaivism was propagated in South India by Nayanars.
2. Shlokas collected by Nayanars are called Tirumurur.

Which of the above statements is/are correct?

(a) Only 1

(b) Only 2

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

7. Who discovered Zero?

(a) Romans

(b) Chinese

(c) Indians

(d) Sumerians

8. Who among the following is particularly known for his contribution in the field of Algebra?

(a) Aryabhatta

(b) Brahmagupta

(c) Bhaskar

(d) Lali

9. The author of the mathematics book is

(a) Ramanuja

(b) Amartya Sen

(d) Bhaskaracharya

(c) Kautilya

10. Which of the following is related to Aryabhatta?

(a) Indian politician

(b) Indian Mathematician and Astronomer

(c) Indian Sanskrit scholar and poet

(d) None of these

11. Which of the following pairs is not correctly matched?

1. Surya- Astrology related to Sun sign and ascendant
2. Paitamah - Astrology related to Sun and Moon
3. Politics of Polish - Earthly principles

(a) Only 1

(b) 2 and 3

(c) 1 and 3

(d) Only 2

12. Which of the following statements are correct in the context of scientific progress made in ancient India?

IAS (Pre) 2012

1. The use of various specialised surgical instruments was common in the AD first century.
2. Transplantation of internal organs of the human body had started in the beginning of the AD third century.
3. The principle of the sine of an angle was known in the AD fifth century.
4. The principle of cyclic quadrilateral was known in the AD seventh century.

(a) 1 and 2

(b) 3 and 4

(c) 1, 3 and 4

(d) All of these

13. Which one of the following dates of the 365 days normal year based on the Gregorian calendar corresponds to the 1st Chaitra of the Rashtriya Panchang calendar based on Saka Samvat?

IAS (Pre) 2014

(a) 22nd March (or 21st March)

(b) 15th May (or 16th May)

(c) 31st March (or 30th March)

(d) 21st April (or 20th April)

14. Consider the following statements.

1. Vikram Samvat started from 58 BC.
2. Saka era started from AD 78.
3. The Gupta period began in AD 319.
4. The era of Muslim rule in India started from AD 1192.

Which of the given statements are correct?

(a) 1 and 2

(b) 3 and 4

(c) 1, 2 and 3

(d) All of these

Know Right Answer

1 (b)

2 (d)

3 (c)

4 (a)

5 (a)

6 (c)

7 (c)

8 (c)

9 (d)

10 (b)

11 (a)

12 (d)

13 (a)

14 (d)