• India has a unique landscape with a mixture of various different physiographic features including mountains, plains, plateaus, deserts and islands. It is a huge landmass formed during different geological periods

Introduction

• In addition to geological formations, various processes like weathering, erosion, and deposition have played significant roles in shaping and altering the landscape to its present configuration. Approximately 43.2% of the land is characterized by plains, 27.7% by plateaus, 18.5% by hills, and 10.7% by mountains.
• The Indian mainland can be classified into six distinct physiographic units based on their 

physical structure and land features:

• The Great Himalayas of North
• The Great Plains of North India
• The Peninsular Plateau
• The Indian Desert
• The Coastal Plains
• The Islands

The Great Himalayas of North

• The Himalayas constitute a range of towering mountains situated along the northern borders of India. 
• Geologically young and structurally folded mountain ranges, the Himalayas extend in a West-East direction from the Indus to the Brahmaputra. Forming an arc covering approximately 2,400 km, their width varies from 400 km in Kashmir to 150 km in Arunachal Pradesh.
• The altitudinal variations in the Himalayas are more pronounced in the Eastern half than in the Western half. There are three distinct phases of sudden changes in the Himalayas:
  • Eocene (64 million years ago) - Greater Himalayas
  • Miocene (45 million years ago) - Lesser Himalayas
  • Post-Pliocene (1.4 million years ago) - Shiwaliks (outer Himalayas)

Classification of Himalayas:

The Himalayan ranges can be categorized based on the following criteria:

Longitudinal Series of Himalayas

On the basis of the longitudinal series, the Himalayan range is divided into five phases:

(1) Trans-Himalayas

• Located north of the Great Himalayas, the trans-Himalayas or Tibet Himalayas are older than the Himalayas. These ranges act as a watershed between rivers flowing southward and those flowing northward. Approximately 40 km wide, they rise in height up to 5,000 m in elevation and include the Karakoram, Zanskar, and Ladakh ranges.
• The second-highest peak globally and the highest peak in India, K2 (8,611 m), is situated in these ranges. It is named Godwin Austen by the British and Qogir by the Chinese.
• The Ladakh plateau, standing at an elevation of 5,000 m, lies on the northeast of the Karakoram range and is the highest plateau in India. It has been dissected into various plains and mountains, with notable features such as Soda plains, Aksai Chin, Depsang plains, and Chang Chenmo.

(ii) Greater Himalayas or Himadri

• The Great or Inner Himalayas, also known as Himadri, represent the northernmost significant range. It is the most uninterrupted range, characterized by the loftiest peaks, boasting an average height of 6,000 m.
•  Extending from Nanga Parbat in the West to Namcha Barwa in the East, this range encompasses all the prominent Himalayan peaks, including India's highest peak, Kangchenjunga.

Siachen Glacier

• The Siachen Glacier is situated north of the Nubra River, a part of the Indus drainage basin originating from the glacier itself. Located in the Eastern Karakoram range of the Himalayas, it is the second-longest non-polar glacier globally. Since 1984, India has administered the entire Siachen Glacier, along with all major passes, and it lies within the Union Territory of Ladakh.
• The folds of the Great Himalayas in this region are asymmetrical, with the core composed of granite. Perennially snowbound, this range features some of the highest peaks, longest glaciers, and highest passes globally. Mount Everest, the world's highest peak, is part of this range. Crossing the passes, generally above 4,500 m in height, is challenging.
• Important passes in this region include Burzil La in Jammu and Kashmir, Zoli La in Ladakh, Baralacha La, and Shipki La in Himachal Pradesh. Thaga La, Mana, Niti, Lipulekh in Uttarakhand, and Nathu La and Jelep La in Sikkim are also significant. The Hindustan-Tibet trade link road passes through Shipki La, while another vital Indo-Tibet link road traverses Jelep La.

Highest Peaks of the World in the Himadri Ranges

(iii) Lesser Himalayas

• The range to the south of the Himadri forms the rugged mountain system known as Himachal or Lesser Himalayas or Middle Himalayas. Composed of highly compressed and altered rocks, the height varies between 3,700 m and 4,500 m, with an average width of 50 km. Notable ranges include the Pir Panjal range, the Dhauladhar, the Mussoorie range, Nag Tibba, and the Mahabharata ranges (in Nepal).
• Pir Panjal range encompasses the famous valley of Kashmir and the Kangra and Kullu valleys in Himachal Pradesh. Dhauladhar range passes through the hill stations of Dalhousie, Dharamshala, and Shimla. The Middle Himalayas feature Mussoorie and Nag Tibba ranges. The slopes are dotted with small pastures called Marg in Kashmir (Gulmarg, Sonmarg, Tanmarg) and Bugyal in Uttarakhand (Auli Bugyal, Dayara Bugyal).
• Hill stations like Mussoorie, Lansdowne, Nainital, Ranikhet, and Chakrata are located on these ranges. Further southeast, the Mahabharata range extends throughout the length of Nepal, known for pilgrimage centers like Vaishno Devi, Amarnath, Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri, and Joshimath.

(iv) Shiwaliks or Sub-Himalayas

• The outermost range of the Himalayas is the Shiwaliks, extending over a width of 10-50 km and ranging in altitude between 900 m and 1,200 m.
• Composed of loose sediments brought down by rivers from the main Himalayan ranges, these valleys are covered with thick gravel and alluvium.
• The Shiwaliks are known by various names in different regions, such as Jammu hills in Jammu, Shiwalik hills in Himachal Pradesh, and Miri, Dafla, Abor, and Mishmi hills in Arunachal Pradesh. 
• The Dhang range, Dundwa range of Uttarakhand, and Churia Ghat hills of Nepal also form part of the Shiwaliks.
• The Shiwaliks stand as the youngest among all the Himalayan ranges, forming after the Middle Himalayas. As they ascended, they obstructed the flow of rivers from the middle Himalayan ranges, creating temporary lakes where sediments brought down by the rivers were deposited.
• As the Shiwaliks continued to rise, rivers carved through them, draining the lakes and leaving behind valleys and plains known as Duns in the West and Duars in Eastern India. Notable examples include Dehradun, Kotli Dun, and Patli Dun. The Jammu hills showcase extensive duns in Udhampur and Kotli, presenting a typical picturesque view.

(v) The Purvanchal

• After crossing the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas take a sudden southward turn, forming a series of comparatively low hills in a crescent shape with its convex side pointing towards the West. These hills are known as Purvanchal.
• In the North, the Patkai Bum forms the international boundary between Arunachal Pradesh and Myanmar. Moving southwards, it merges with the Naga hills, followed by the Manipur hills, Mizo hills, and Lushai hills, all forming the boundary between Myanmar and India.
• Mostly composed of strong sedimentary sandstones and covered with dense forests, the Purvanchal region includes the highest peak, Saramati Peak (3,826 m), in Nagaland. The highest point in the Mizo hills (Mizoram) is Blue Mountain, standing at 2,157 m. While comparatively lower than their Western counterparts, these hill ranges are formidable due to rough terrain, dense forests, and swift streams.

Regional Divisions of Himalayas

On the basis of regional series, the Himalayan range can be divided into phases:

(i) Punjab Himalayas

• Existing in the westernmost part of the Himalayas, Punjab Himalayas extend from east to southeast for 560 km. Notable ranges include Zanskar range, Pir Panjal range, and Shiwalik range, including Ladakh, Dhaula Dhar, etc.
• A significant portion of the Himalayas lies in Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir, and Himachal Pradesh, earning the region the names Kashmir Himalayas or Himachal Himalayas.

(ii) Kumaun Himalayas

• With a higher general elevation than Punjab Himalayas, Kumaun Himalayas hosts important peaks like Nanda Devi, Badrinath, Karnet, Trishul, Kedarnath, and Gangotri. Its westernmost part is locally known as Garhwal Himalayas.
• Pilgrimage centers like Badrinath and Gangotri located in this section hold great religious importance for Hindus.

(iii) Nepal Himalayas

• Covering most part of Nepal, this section is known as Nepal Himalayas, representing the tallest section of the Himalayas with some of the world's highest peaks, including Mount Everest, Kangchenjunga, Lhotse, Makalu, Dhaulagiri, and Annapurna.

(iv) Assam Himalayas

• Known as Assam Himalayas, this region's area also encompasses Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. Its southern slope is very steep, gradually decreasing in the west. Notable peaks in this region include Namcha Barwa, Kula Kangri, and Chomolhari.
• These divisions have been demarcated by river valleys, discussed below:

Significant Features of Himalayas

Several distinctive features characterize the Himalayas, and some key aspects are highlighted below:

Syntaxial Bends and Off-shoots:

• The predominant East-West orientation of the Himalayan range encounters abrupt shifts at its Eastern and Western extremities, curving sharply southward. This sudden change is akin to a hairpin bend, marked by Syntaxial bends. From these points, extensions stretch further South, known as the off-shoots of the Himalayas.
• Western Syntaxial Bend: At the Western extremity, near Nanga Parbat, a distinct geological shift occurs as the terrain takes a sharp turn from the deep gorge of the Indus. Southwards from this bend, the North-West off-shoots emerge, including the Hazara, Sulaiman, Bugti, Kirthar, and Makran ranges within Pakistan.
• Eastern Syntaxial Bend: In Arunachal Pradesh, the Eastern extremity witnesses a profound alteration in the mountains and tectonic alignment, transitioning from an Easterly to a Southerly direction. This bend is located near the Dihang gorge of the Brahmaputra river. The areas beyond this bend comprise the North-East off-shoots, encompassing the Indo-Myanmar hills, Arakan yoma, and the Tenasserim ranges.
• These projections predominantly lie outside the borders of India, with the exception of the Purvanchal ranges.

Important Glaciers of the Himalayan Mountains

Comparison between Western and Eastern Himalayas

Valleys in the Himalayas

The Great Plains of North India

• The extensive plains in the northern part of India, also known as the Indus-Ganga Brahmaputra plain, stretch approximately 3200 km in length, with a width ranging from 150 km to 300 km. Originating in the Pleistocene and Holocene periods of the Neozoic or Quaternary era, these plains represent one of the most recent geographical features in India.
• Formed through the narrowing and shallowing of the Tethys sea and the deposition of sediments from peninsular rivers, these almost featureless plains have a maximum elevation of 204 m and an average depth of 460 m. The Ambala region serves as the water divide, with rivers to its east draining into the Bay of Bengal and those to its west flowing into the Arabian Sea.
• The Great Plains are further categorized into four regions based on the characteristics of alluvium, surface gradient, drainage channels, and regional traits:
  • Bhabar Region: Located along the foothills of the Shiwaliks from Indus to Tista without interruption, this region has a width of 8-16 km. Composed of stones and pebbles, it exhibits high porosity, causing rivers to vanish underground. Unsuitable for cultivation.
  • Terai Region: Situated south of the Bhabar region (15-30 km), the Terai region features the re-emergence of underground streams from the Bhabar, leading to the formation of marshy areas. The river flow in this region is slow.
• This is a region of dense forests and high biological diversity. The extension of Terai region is more in the East as compared to the West due to high rainfall. It is suitable for the cultivation of sugarcane, rice, and wheat.

Difference Between Bhabar and Terai Regions

• Khadar Region It is made up of new alluvium. In this region, floods bring new alluvium every year. Khadar region is generally found in the delta regions. e.g., the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta spread in India and Bangladesh is a Khadar region. This area considered ideal for agriculture due to water availability. Rice, jute, wheat, sugarcane, etc., are grown here.
•  Bhangar Region It is that higher part of the plains, where the flood water cannot reach. It is made up of old alluvium. It is often seen in the structure of a terrace formed above the flood plain along river beds. Kankar or calcareous deposits found here.

Difference between Khadar and Bhangar Regions

Regional Division of Great Plain of India

On the basis of regional division, great Indian plains can be divided into four parts

The Rajasthan Plain

• The westernmost part of the extensive plains of India is occupied by the Thar, also known as the Great Indian Desert, spanning across Western Rajasthan and adjacent areas of Pakistan.
• The desert stretches approximately 650 km in length and 250-300 km in width. The eastern segment of the Thar desert, up to the Aravalli range, forms a semi-arid plain referred to as the Rajasthan Bagar region.
• This region is irrigated by various short seasonal streams originating from the Aravalli and supports agriculture in specific fertile patches known as Rohi.
• The area north of the Luni is called Thali or sandy plain. Beyond the Luni basin, there is a vast expanse of inland drainage on the eastern edge of the Thar desert, featuring several saline lakes such as Sambhar, Didwana, Degara, Kuchaman, Sargol, and Khatu. These lakes play a crucial role in the region's geography.

Punjab-Haryana Plain

• Transitioning from the Great Indian Desert, the fertile plains of Punjab and Haryana unfold to the east and northeast. The eastern boundary of this plain in Haryana is defined by the Yamuna river. Some areas of the plain exhibit a flat to slightly convex topography influenced by the subsurface Delhi-Aravalli ridge.
• Depositional processes by rivers have been ongoing for a long time, connecting these doabs. However, this mass of alluvium is interrupted by bluffs, locally known as Dhayas. 
• The Khadar belt, also known as Bet lands, is agriculturally valuable but prone to intermittent flooding, forming short streams on the northern edge of the plain.
• The part of the plain formed by the alluvial deposits of five rivers—Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Chenab, and Jhelum—is known as the Punjab plain, the land of five rivers. It primarily consists of doabs, arranged from East to West as follows:
  • Bist-Jalandhar Doab, lying between the Beas and the Sutlej.
  • Bari Doab, between the Beas and the Ravi.
  • Rechna Doab, between the Ravi and the Chenab.
  • Chaj Doab, between the Chenab and the Jhelum.
  • Sindh Sagar Doab, between the Jhelum-Chenab and the Indus (currently in Pakistan).

Ganga Plain

• This is the largest unit of the great plain of India. Depending on its geological variations, this plain can be further subdivided into the following three divisions:
  • Upper Ganga Plain: Comprising the upper part of the Ganga plain, this area is delimited by the 300 m contour in the Shiwaliks in the North, the peninsular body in the South, and the course of the Yamuna river in the West.
  • Middle Ganga Plain: To the East of the upper Ganga plain lies the middle Ganga plain, occupying the eastern part of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. This plain is drained by the Ghaghara, Gandak, and Kosi rivers.
  • Lower Ganga Plain: Some districts of Bihar and the whole of West Bengal are part of this plain. The northern part of this plain has been formed by sediment deposited by the Tista, Jaldhakia, and Torsa rivers. Additionally, this area is marked by a barren plain, a tract of old alluvium between the host-Mahananda corridor in the West and the river Sankosh in the East.

Brahmaputra Plain

• The western boundary of these plains is formed by the Indo-Bangladesh border and the boundary of the lower Ganga plain. The Brahmaputra river enters this plain near Sadiya and flows further to Bangladesh after turning Southwards near Dhubri. There are large marshy tracts in this region.
• Southern tributaries of the Brahmaputra also have a meandering course and a good number of hills and oxbow lakes due to braided channels.

The Peninsular Plateau

• Covering an area of about 16 lakh sq km, the peninsular uplands form the largest physiographic division of India.
•  It is a part of the ancient Gondwana land and is triangular in shape. With a general elevation between 600-900 m, the region constitutes an irregular triangle with its base lying between the Delhi ridge in the West and Rajmahal hills in the East, with a part of its northern portion buried under the alluvium of the Ganga and Yamuna.
• It is bounded by the Aravallis in the Northwest, Hazaribagh and Rajmahal in the Northeast, the Western Ghats (Sahyadri) in the West, and the Eastern Ghats in the East. Its North-South extension is 1600 km, and East-West extension is 1400 km. The Peninsular Plateau is called the plateau of plateaus since it is composed of various smaller plateaus like the Central Highlands, Eastern Plateau, Northeastern Plateau, Deccan Plateau, etc.

The Central Highlands

• The central highlands are bounded to the West by the Aravalli range. The Satpura range demarcates its boundary in the South from the Deccan Plateau.
• An eastern extension of the central highlands is formed by the Rajmahal hills. The general elevation ranges between 700-1000 m above the mean sea level. It slopes towards the North and Northeastern directions. The following areas are included under the central highlands.

The Aravalli Range

• It runs North-East to South-West for 800 km from Delhi through Rajasthan to Palanpur in Gujarat.
• These are the relict mountains representing one of the world's oldest highlands formed as a result of folding process in Archaean times.
• It has a lower elevation between Delhi and Ajmer, where it is characterised by a chain of discontinuous ranges.
• These mountains are deeply worn down and eroded, running in a North-East to South-West axis.
• The rivers in the Aravallis uplands include the Mahi, Luni, Jojari, Bandi and Sukri. The general height of this range varies between 400-1300 m.
• Guru Shikhar (1722 m) is the highest peak of the range, located in Abu hills of Rajasthan. Barr, Piplighat, Dewari and Desuri are some of the passes associated with this range. The surface features include sanddunes called Barkhan

INDIA Relief Features of Peninsula

The Mewar Plateau

• The Mewar Plateau, situated in Eastern Rajasthan, boasts an average elevation ranging from 250 to 500 meters above sea level. Erosional activity from the Banas River and its tributaries gives the plateau the appearance of a rolling plain. In Northern Madhya Pradesh, this plateau forms a triangular shape and exhibits two drainage systems. Rivers like Mahi and Narmada flow through it and eventually reach the Arabian Sea, while rivers like Chambal and Betwa traverse it, joining Yamuna before flowing into the Bay of Bengal.

Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand Uplands

• Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand Uplands lie to the South of the Yamuna River along the border region of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Bundelkhand covers five districts of Uttar Pradesh and four districts of Madhya Pradesh. Baghelkhand, positioned Southeast of the Bundelkhand region, is primarily composed of limestones and sandstones. Rounded hummocky hills made of granite and sandstone dykes create a natural site for water storage.

The Vindhyan Ranges

• The Vindhyan Ranges, extending in a West-East direction from Jobat in Gujarat to Sasaram in Bihar for 1200 km, run parallel to the Narmada rift valley. With a general elevation of 400-700 meters, this range consists of horizontal beds of sedimentary rocks. Serving as a watershed between North-flowing rivers of the Ganga system and peninsular rivers, it continues Eastwards as Bharner Hills and Kaimur hills.

The Satpura Ranges

• The Satpura Ranges, an example of a block mountain, consist of seven mountains running in the East-West direction between the Narmada and Tapi rivers. Stretching about 900 km, it begins from the Rajpipla hills in the West through the Mahadeo hills to the Maikal range.

The Eastern Plateau

The Eastern Plateau encompasses various regions:

The Chhotanagpur Plateau

• The Chhotanagpur Plateau, situated East of Baghelkhand in Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and West Bengal, boasts an average elevation of 700 meters. Rich in minerals, it witnesses large-scale mining activities for iron, manganese, coal, uranium, and more. The plateau features a radial drainage pattern, with the Damodar river valley renowned for its coal deposits.

Chhattisgarh Basin/Mahandi Basin

• Chhattisgarh Basin/Mahandi Basin, covering Chhattisgarh and Odisha, formed through subsidence. The basin is drained by rivers like Mahanadi and its tributaries, hosting major coalfields like the Korba coalfield.

Dandakaranya Plateau 

• Dandakaranya Plateau spans an area of 39,060 sq km across Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana. Although infertile, it is mineral-rich, with the Baster region holding tin deposits. The plateau serves as the origin point of the Indravati River, a tributary of the Godavari.

The North-Eastern Plateau

• The North-Eastern Plateau, an extension of the main peninsular plateau, includes the Meghalaya Plateau. 
• This Eastern extension is separated by the Rajmahal-Garo Gap or Malda Gap and comprises the Garo Hills in the West, Khasi-Jaintia Hills in the center, and Mikir Hills in the East.
• The major tribal groups residing in the Meghalaya plateau are Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia. The presence of laterite soil in this region is attributed to abundant rainfall, and Shillong (1961 m) stands as the highest point on the plateau.

The Deccan Plateau

The Deccan Plateau, extending in a triangular shape, encompasses various regions:

Deccan Trap:

• Predominantly found in the Deccan plateau, covering areas such as Saurashtra, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Goa.
• The River Godavari originates from this region.
• Characterized by black or regur soil, suitable for cotton cultivation.

Karnataka Plateau:

• Located at the southern part of the Deccan plateau, covering the entire Karnataka except for a small portion in the northeast.
• Composed mainly of lava-origin rocks, including gneisses and schists.
• The Karnataka plateau exhibits a general elevation of 400-800 m in the north and 900-1100 m in the south.
• Noteworthy features include Maidan and Malnad, with Malnad being a densely forested highland with hills, including the Baba-budan hill, rich in iron ore. Maidan is a rolling plateau surface of generally low relief.
• Dominated by the Western Ghats, which stretch continuously to the southern tip of the peninsula.

Andhra Plateau:

• Encompasses the Rayalaseema plateau and Telangana plateau.
• Rayalaseema plateau lies to the south of the Krishna basin, while Telangana plateau lies to the north.
• The southern part of the Telangana plateau is a fertile area.
• Kolleru lake, one of the largest freshwater lakes in India, is situated here.

The Southern Hills:

• South of Nilgiri, Anaimalai, and Cardamom hills are considered separate from the ghats, characterized by crystalline laterite constructs called Charnockites.
• These regions are high-rainfall evergreen forest areas.
• Anamudi (2,695 m) in the Anaimalai hills is the highest peak in Southern India, along with Dodabetta (2,637 m) in the Nilgiri hills.
• Cardamom hills, the southernmost, extend up to Kanyakumari and are renowned for the cultivation of cardamom and spices.

The Western Ghats or Sahyadris:

• Form the western edge of the Deccan plateau and run parallel to the western coast.
• Serve as a continuous water divide, spanning 1600 km from Maharashtra to Kanyakumari.
• Average width varies from 50 km in the north to about 300 km in the south.
• Composed of lava deposits up to 16º N latitude, with an average elevation of 900-1600 m.
• Important peaks include Kalsubai (1646 m), Salher (1567 m), Mahabaleshwar (1424 m) in Maharashtra, and Kudremukh (1892 m) in Karnataka.
• Significant passes facilitating movement between the western coastal plains and the rest of the country are Bhor Ghat, Thalghat, and Palghat.
• Palghat Gap separates the Nilgiri hills in the South from the Anaimalai hills. The meeting point of the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats is at the Nilgiris. 
• The Godavari, Bhima, and Krishna rivers originate near Mahabaleshwar and form estuaries. The Western Ghats mountain range is renowned for its rich biodiversity, leading to its declaration as a UNESCO 'World Heritage Site' in 2012.

Eastern Ghats:

• Discontinuous and irregular, dissected by rivers draining into the Bay of Bengal.
• Average height ranges from 900-1100 m.
• The Eastern Ghats are lower than the Western Ghats due to the large rivers like Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, Mahanadi, etc.
• Lack structural unity or a well-defined layout, with Nallamala, Velikondas, Palkondas, and Pachmalais in the North, Cuddapah ranges in the Middle, and Tamil Nadu hill in the South.
• Average elevation is 600 m, stretching from the South of Mahanadi valley to the Nilgiris in the South.

Arma Konda (1680 m)

• At the Andhra-Odisha border, it is the highest peak of Eastern ghats. Other important peaks include Mahendragiri (1501 m) in Odisha, Gali Konda (1643 m), etc. It is a continuous range from South of Mahanadi to Godavari.
• They continue South of the Krishna river in the form of highly dissected hills from North to South in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu as Nallamala hills, Palkonda range, Velikondat range, Javadi hills and Shevaroy hills only to confluence with Western ghats at Nilgiri hills. Khondalites are predominantly found in Eastern ghats.

Comparatively broader and do not form a continuous water divide.

Western Ghats:

• Runs parallel to the Western coast in a North-South direction from the Tapi river to Kanyakumari.
• Stands like a continuous wall and can be crossed only through passes.
• Source of many large rivers.
• Almost perpendicular to the monsoon, causing heavy rainfall in the West coastal plain.

Eastern Ghats:

• Runs in North-East to South-West, parallel to the Eastern coast from Odisha to the Nilgiri hills.
• Average elevation is 900-1100 m, with an average width of 50 to 80 km.
• Divided into several parts by large rivers.
• Exhibits structural unity.

Mountain Passes in Peninsular India:

• Goran Ghat: Located in the Aravalli hills, joining the city of Udaipur with Sirohi in Rajasthan.
• Haldi Ghat: Located in the Aravalli hills, connecting Rajas with Pali district in Rajasthan.
• Thal Ghat: Located in the Sahyadri range, linking Nashik with Mumbai. The NH-3 and the Bhopal-Indore railway line pass through it.
• Bhor Ghat: Located in the Western Ghats, connecting Mumbai with Pune.
• Palghat: Located in the Western Ghats, joining Coimbatore with Kochi and Kozhikode, forming the confluence between Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The river Gayatri flows through it.

The Indian Desert:

• The Great Indian Desert (Thar desert) lies to the North-West of the Aravalli hills, extending up to 640 km in length and 300 km in width.
• Spreads across four states: Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.
• Characterized by undulating topography with longitudinal dunes and barkhans.
• Experiences arid climate due to very low rainfall (below 100 cm) in the region known as Marusthali and semi-arid climate known as Bagar.
• The semi-arid landscape with shifting sand dunes, locally known as Dhrian, is characteristic of the land. Saline-soaked areas, referred to as Ragar, are found in these regions and are drained by short streams originating from the Aravalli.
• To the south of Jaisalmer, these lakes are known as Ranns, and numerous depressions occupied by alkaline lakes are called Dhands. Fertile tracks found in the Bagar region are locally known as Rohi.
• The longitudinal sand dunes are known as Bhits. The underlying rock structure of the desert is an extension of the peninsular plateau, but the surface features have been covered by physical weathering and wind action due to the extreme arid conditions in this region.
• The Great Indian Desert can be divided into two parts: the northern part slopes towards Sindh, and the southern part slopes towards the Rann and Kutch. The Rann of Kutch is famous for its white salty desert sand. Most of the rivers in this region are ephemeral, with the Luni being one of the most important rivers. The Sambhar, the Kuchaman, and the Didwana are important lakes in the north of the Luni.
• This desert is renowned as the world's wealthiest desert because it is the largest producer of wool globally, and it abounds in minerals like gypsum and kaolin.

The Coastal Plains

• The peninsular plateau is surrounded by narrow coastal strips along the Arabian Sea on the west and the Bay of Bengal on the east, forming the Western and Eastern coastal plains based on different characteristics.

Western Coastal Plains:

• An example of a submerged coastal plain, the Western coastal plains have a narrow alluvial margin interspersed with hilly terrain. The plain widens out south of Karwar. The Konkan plains, Karnataka Coastal Plains, Malabar Coastal Plains, and Gujarat Coastal Plains constitute its four sections. 
• The Konkan plains, extending from Daman to Goa, feature marine erosion and several islands. The Karnataka plains stretch from Goa to Mangalore and are known for their fertility. The Malabar plains between Mangalore and Kanyakumari are low-lying with extensive lagoons and backwaters. The Gujarat coast extends from the Rann of Kutch to Kathiawar.

Eastern Coastal Plains:

• Broader than the Western coastal plain, the Eastern coastal plain is an emergent coast with well-developed deltas formed by rivers flowing eastward into the Bay of Bengal. Its average width is 120 km, and it has fertile land due to the deposition of alluvium in coastal areas. 
• However, it has fewer ports and harbors due to its emergent nature. Notable locations include the Chilika lake and Pulicat lake.
• Northern Circars rivers, including the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri, have given rise to expansive deltas along the coast, encompassing the coastal areas of Odisha. The Mahanadi, in particular, forms a delta with a thick layer of fine alluvium.
• Coromandel Coast, situated south of Northern Circars, extends along the Tamil Nadu coast, covering an area of 23,000 sq km. These plains constitute a fertile stretch, supporting the cultivation of a variety of crops.

Differences Between Western and Eastern Coastal Plains:

Western Coastal Plains

• Located between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea coast.
• Narrow plain with an average width of 64 km.
• Drained by several short and swift streams that are unable to form deltas.
• Lagoons are comparatively less in this plain.
• It has an indented coast that supports many ports.
• Submerged coast with no scope for depositional action of rivers.
• Mostly of the emergent type characterized by offshore, fine sea beaches, sand ridges, and lagoons.

Eastern Coastal Plains

• Located between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal coast.
• Comparatively broader with an average width of 80-100 km.
• Big rivers like the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri have formed large deltas.
• The Eastern plain has more or less a straight coast where good ports are lacking.
• There are several lagoons, especially in the southern part of this plain.
• The Western plain has an indented coast that supports many ports.
• Emergent type characterized by offshore, fine sea beaches, sand ridges, and lagoons.

The Islands:

Island Groups

• Lakshadweep Islands
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Other Islands

• Sriharikota
• Pamban Island
•  New Moore Island
• Abdul Kalam Island (Wheeler Island)
• Buochoq axent. Majuli Island (River 

Lakshadweep Islands

• The main island group lying close to the Malabar coast of Kerala.
• Comprises 36 islands, with those north of 11° N latitude known as Amindivi islands and those south as Cannanore islands.
• Covering a small area of 32 sq km.
• Most islands have low elevation, not rising more than 5 m above sea level.
• Kavaratti island serves as the administrative headquarters.
• Separated by Minicoy islands through the 9° channel.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

• Formed by the extension of the tertiary mountain chains of Arakan Yoma.
• Equatorial climate with a thick forest cover.
• Divided into two categories: the Andamans in the north and the Nicobars in the south.
• The Andaman islands are sub-divided into four major groups: North Andaman, Middle Andaman, South Andaman, and Little Andaman.
• The highest peak is Saddle peak, and the capital, Port Blair, is located on the eastern coast of South Andaman.
• Barren Island and Narcondam Island, located north of Port Blair, are volcanic islands.
• Duncan Pass is found between South Andaman and Little Andaman.
• The largest island in the Nicobar group is Great Nicobar, covering an area of 1045 sq km, while the smallest is Pilo Milow Island, with a size of 1.35 sq km. The highest peak in the Nicobar group is Mount Thullier, reaching 642 m. The 6 Channel separates Great Nicobar from Sumatra.
• The Andaman and Nicobar Islands boast 6 national parks and 40 small ports. The southernmost point of India, 'Indira Point,' is located south of Great Nicobar and got submerged due to the Tsunami in 2004. Various tribes, including Jarawas, Onges, Shompens, etc., inhabit these islands.

Other Islands:

• Sriharikota A barrier island off the Bay of Bengal coast, situated in the SHAR project (Sriharikota Range) settlement of Nellore district in Andhra Pradesh.
  • Home to the rocket launching station of ISRO (SHAR).
• Pamban Island Also known as Ram's Bridge or Rama Setu, it lies between Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar.
  • Geologically connecting India and Sri Lanka.
• New Moore Island A small uninhabited offshore island in the Bay of Bengal, off the coast of the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta region.
  • Emerged in the Bay of Bengal after the Bhola cyclone in 1970.
• Abdul Kalam Island (Wheeler Island) Formerly known as Wheeler Island, it is an island off the coast of Odisha, India, approximately 150 km east of the state capital Bhubaneswar.
• Majuli Island The world's largest river island located on the Brahmaputra River in Assam.
  • Spreads over an extensive area of 352 sq km.
• Formed by the Brahmaputra River in the south and the Kherkutia Xuti joined by the Subansiri River in the north.

Prelims Facts

• Which mountain range is the youngest range in India?

- Himadri Range (UPPSC (Pre) 2020

• The Himalayas are formed of Parallel fold ranges, of the oldest range is

The Great Himalayan Range [IAS (Pre) 1994] 

• In which part of Himalayan is 'Karewa' land found

Kashmir Himalaya [MPPSC (Pre) 2019] -

• The flat plains along the Sub-himalayan region in North India are called

-Bhabar (UPPSC (Pre) 2007]

• The foothills region of Himalayas are known as

- Shivalik (BPSC (Pre) 1999, BPSC (Pre) 2012]

• Shivalik hills are part of which area?

Himalaya (MPPSC (Pre) 2013)

• The Shivalik series was formed in which period?

- Cenozoic Period [BPSC (Pre) 2007]

• Between which ranges the valley of Kashmir is located

- Zaskar and Pir Panjal (WBCS (Pre) 2021)

• What is the name of highest mountain peak in India?

- Kangchenjunga [APSC (Pre) 2015]

• which mountain range is found between the Karakoram mountain range and Pir Panjal mountain range?

- Zaskar mountain range (MPSC (Pre) 2021]

• Mount Kailash is situated in which area of South Asia

- Tibet [JPSC (Pre) 2021]

• Lesser Himalaya is also known as middle Himalayas, is Located between

Shivalik and Great Himalaya [UKPSC (Pre) 2006]

• The mountain range lying between India and Myanmar is

Lushai [WBCS (Pre) 2018]

• The South of 'Shivalik' rock series, Bhabar region is an example of

- Piedmont Situation [UPPSC (Pre) 1994) (MPSC (Pre) 2016]

•  Nanda Devi Peak forms part of which Himalayas

- Garhwal Himalayas [MPPSC (Pre) 2013]

•  In which state is the Guru Shikhar peak located?

- Rajasthan [IAS (Pre) 2007]

• The altitude of Shivalik peaks fall in between what 

meters -850-1200 mts [UKPSC (Pre) 2011]

• What is the sequence of mountain peaks from East to West - Kangchenjunga, Everest, Annapurna and

Dhaulagiri [UKPSC (Pre) 2014]

•  What is the highest peak in the Aravalli range Guru Shikhar [RAS/RTS (Pre) 2012, Nagaland PSC (Pre) 2015

Self Check

1. With reference to the Himalayan range, which of the statements) is/are correct?

UPPSC (Pre) 2019

1. The sedimentary rocks of the greater Himalayas were fossil less.
2. Marine living folios are found in the sedimentary rocks of the lesser Himalayas.
3. Remains of human civilization are found in the outer of the Shiwalik Himalayas.

Select the correct answer by using the codes given below.

(a) 1 and 2

(b) 2 and 3

(c) 1 and 3

(d) All of these

2. Which one of the following sequences of the Himalayan ranges from South to North is correct?

WBSC (Pre) 2011

(a) Karakoram - Ladakh - Zaskar - Pir Panjal

(b) Ladakh - Zaskar - Pir Panjal - Karakoram

(c) Zaskar - Pir Panjal - Karakoram - Ladakh

(d) Pir Panjal - Zaskar - Ladakh - Karakoram

3. Consider the following relief features. IPSC (Pre) 2013

1. Zaskar range
2. Dhauladhar range
3. Ladakh range
4. Karakoram range

The correct south-to-northward sequence of the above relief features is

(a) 2, 1, 3, 4

(b) 4, 3, 2, 1

(c) 2, 3, 4, 1

 (d) 4, 2, 1, 3

4. Consider the following statements

IAS (Pre) 2023

1. Amarkantak hills are at the confluence of Vindhya and Sahyadri ranges.
2. Biligirirangan hills constitute the Easternmost part of Satpura range.
3. Seshachalam hills constitute the Southernmost part of Western Ghats.

(a) Only one

(b) Only two

(c) All three

(d) None of these

5 Siachen Glacier is situated to the.

IAS (Pre) 2020

(a) East of Aksai Chin

(b) East of Leh

(c) North of Gilgit

(d) North of Nubra Valley

6. Consider the following pairs.

Glaciers                            Rivers

1. Bandarpunch               Yamuna
2. Bara Shigri                    Chenab
3. Milam                          Mandakini
4. Siachen                           Nubral
5. Zemu                              Manas

Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?

(a) 1,2 and 4

(b) 1,3 and 4

(c) 2 and 5 

(d) 3 and 5

7. Assertion (A) The Gangetic Plain is the most densely populated part of India.

Reason (R) Ganga is the most widely used river in India.

Codes

(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.

(c) A is true, but R is false.

(d) A is false, but Ris true.

8. The most extensive geomorphic region of India is

(a) Southern plateau

(b) Northern plains

(c) Northern mountains 

(d) the Coastal plains

9. Which among the following statements about the Peninsular Plateau of India is/are correct?

1. The plateau of the South is mainly composed of granite and gneiss.
2. The Deccan lava plateau is a raised plateau, which is made up of horizontally configured sheets of lava.
3. The Malwa plateau rises above Vindhyas and forms the Eastern side of the plateau.
4. The Basin of Narmada and Tappi falls between the Vindhya and Satpura ranges.

Codes

(a) 1, 2 and 3

(b) 1, 2 and 4

(c) 1 and 2

(d) Only 4

10. Dodda Betta peak is situated in

(a) the Vindhya range

(b) the Satpura range

(c) An malai hille

(d) Nilgiri hills

11. In which district, the major portion of the Chhuri hills is distributed?

CGPSC (Pre) 2022

(a) Korba

(b) Mungeli

(C) Bilaspur

(d) Kabirdham

12. Which of the following hills are present where

the Eastern ghats and Western ghats meet?

UKPSC (Pre) 2022

(a) Nilgiri hills

(b) Cardamom hills

(c) Anaimalai hills

(d) Sahyadri hills

13. Consider the following relief features. JPSC (Pre) 2016

1. Mahadeo range
2. Maikal range
3. Ch hotanagepur plateau
4. Khasi hills

The correct West to Eastward sequence of the above relief features is 

(a) 1, 2, 3, 4

(b) 4, 3, 2, 1

(c) 2, 3, 4, 1

(d) 1, 3, 2, 4

14. The Western ghats is an important mountain system of the West coast of India. the word ghat means

WBCS (Pre) 2017

(a) port

(b) stair

(c) thrust

1. d) gap or pass

15. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists.

Codes

1. a) 1 2 3 4
2. b) 1 3 4 2
3. c) 4 3 2 1
4. d) 3 1 4 2

16. Which one of the following Passes-States/U. I) is correctly matched?

UPPSC (Pre) 2023

(a) Niti-Uttarakhand

(b) Aghil-Arunachal

(C) Mana-Himachal Pradesh 

(d) Diphu-Ladakh Pradesh

17. Which of the following states has longest coast line of India?

UPPSC (Pre) 2018

(a) Andhra Pradesh

(b) Gujarat

(c) Tamil Nadu

(d) Kerala

18. Kori Creek lies in

UPPSC (Mains) 2008,11

(a) Gulf of Kutch

(b) Gulf of Khambhat

(c) Little Rann of Kutch

(d) Rann of Kutch

19. 10° channel separates UPPSC (Pre) 2005, IAS (Pre) 2014

(a) Andman from Nicobar islands

(b) Andaman from Myanmar

(c) India from Sri Lanka

(d) Lakshadweep from Maldives

20. Consider the following statements.

IAS (Pre) 2018

1. The Barren island volcano is an active volcano located in the Indian Territory.
2. Barren island lies about 140 km East of Great Nicobar.
3. The last time the Barren island volcano erupted was in 1991 and it has remained inactive since then.

Which of the statements) given above is/are correct?

(a) Only 1

(b) Only 3

(c) 2 and 3

(d) 1 and 3

21. Which of the following is a coral island?

WBCS (Pre) 2018

(a) New Moore

(b) Car Nicobar

(c) Andaman

(d) Lakshadweep

22. Which of the following island is not a part of Lakshadweep island?

UKPSC (Pre) 2022

(a) Tillanchong

(b) Agatti

(c) Kavaratti

(d) Kalpeni

Know Right Answer

1 (b)

2 (d)

3 (a)

4 (d)

5 (d)

6 (a)

7 (a)

8 (a)

9 ©

10 (d)

11 (a)

12 (a)

13 (a)

14 (d)

15(b)

16 (a)

17 (b)

18 (d)

19 (a)

20 (a)

21 (d)

22 (a)