• The Mahajanapadas represent the state system that emerged in the sixth century BC. The process of emergence of Mahajanapadas was initiated by certain important economic changes and the consequent sociopolitical developments witnessed during that period. There were sixteen Mahajanapadas mentioned in the early Buddhist and Jaina texts.

Emergence of Mahajanapadas

• During the sixth century BC, the widespread adoption of iron technology in the Indian subcontinent played a pivotal role in transforming the landscape. This era witnessed the clearing of vast forest areas across the Gangetic plain, leading to the establishment of extensive settlements in the region.
• The introduction of new iron tools and weaponry not only boosted food grain production but also advanced the art of warfare. This gave rise to a new agrarian economy, the development of large cities, surplus production, and the formation of formidable armies, culminating in the creation of expansive territories under a unified authority known as Janapadas.

•  These Janapadas took the form of either Kingdoms or Republics (Ganasangha), with the latter being governed by a group of individuals under an elected leader.
• In ancient republics, the ownership and rule of the land were typically vested in the Kshatriya Clan. Some historians referred to these societies as Oligarchies due to their exclusionary practices, which restricted non-Kshatriyas from holding governance positions within the republic.
• As time progressed, certain Janapadas evolved into Mahajanapadas by expanding their territorial control and augmenting their power. The constant conflicts among these entities were driven by the pursuit of extending their dominance and control over additional regions.

Types of Mahajanapadas

Mahajanapadas were of two types

• Monarchial States Kasi, Magadha, Panchala, Kosala, Anga, Vatsa, Avanti, Gandhara, Kamboja, Matsya, Kurus, Chedi, Surasena.
• Non-Monarchial/Republican States Vajjis, Mallas, Asmaka.

Sixteen Mahajanapadas and their Capitals

Administration Under Mahajanapadas

During the era of the Sixteen Mahajanapadas, administrative systems varied across different regions of India. The ruler, known by various titles such as King, Samrat, Virat, and Swarat, governed with distinct features:

• The title of Emperor could be reclaimed by performing Rajasuya Yajna, and a ruler blessed by Indra would be referred to as Virat.
• Kingship was typically hereditary, though occasional elections by the people occurred.
• The king's administration involved the assistance of higher officials, called Amatyas or Mahamatras, who held roles such as Commander (Senanayaka), Minister (Mantrin), chief accountant, judge, and head of the royal harem.
• Another class of officers, Ayuktas, performed similar functions in some states.
• Notable ministers, like Varsakara, influenced events; for example, aiding Ajatashatru in conquering Vaishali by sowing discord among the Lichchhavis.
• Village headmen (Gramini, Gramabhojaka, or Gramika) managed local administration.
• Peasants were required to pay a compulsory levy called Bali, collected by special officers known as Balisadhakas.

Rise of Magadhan Empire

• Out of the 16 Mahajanapadas, Magadha, Vatsa, Avanti, and Koshala emerged as powerful entities, initiating a struggle for supremacy from the fourth to the sixth century BC. Ultimately, Magadha, under the rule of the Haryanka Dynasty, became the most powerful kingdom in North India:
• The growth of Magadha started under Jarasandha and Brihadratha, further expanding under the Shishunaga and reaching its zenith under the Mauryas.
• Magadha was the first Mahajanapada where the memorization of dynastic history and epic tales began.
• Geographically, Magadha covered most parts of Bihar and Bengal through conquests of Lichchhavis and Auga.

Major Factors for the Rise of the Magadha Empire

Several factors contributed to the rise of the Magadha Empire:

• Magadha's strategic location on the main land route connecting Eastern and Western India facilitated control over trade between the two regions.
• The fertility of the land and higher tax revenue contributed to the prosperity of the Magadhan Empire.
• Able rulers like Shishunaga, Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, and Mahapadma Nanda followed a policy of imperial expansion.

Haryanka Dynasty (540-412 BC)

• The earliest capital of Magadha was Rajgriha, also known as Girivraja at that time.
• Bimbisara, the first king of the Haryanka Dynasty, founded Rajgriha at the foot of the hills North of Girivraja.

Bimbisara

• Bimbisara, contemporary to Buddha, established the first standing army, defeated Anga king Brahmadutta, and strengthened his position through matrimonial alliances with royal families of Koshala, Lichchhavi, and Madra clans of Punjab.
• Bimbisara, the ruler of Magadha, demonstrated diplomatic and strategic prowess during his reign:
• He dispatched his personal physician, Jivak (son of Salavati), to rival Chandapradyota Mahasena of Ujjain to cure him of jaundice.
• Pukkusati, the Gandhara ruler of Taxila, sent an embassy to Bimbisara.

Ajatashatru's Rule (492-460 BC)

• Ajatashatru, the son of Chellana and Bimbisara, ascended the throne through patricide and pursued an assertive expansionist policy:
• He defeated his maternal uncle Prasenajita, king of Kosala, and married his daughter Vajjira.
• After a 16-year war, Ajatashatru destroyed Vaishali, the capital of the Licchavis, by sowing discord among its people.
• During his reign, Buddha passed away, and Ajatashatru patronized the first Buddhist Council.
• Sunidha and Vatsakar served as Ajatashatru's diplomatic ministers.

Udayain's Reign (460-444 BC)

• Udayain, Ajatashatru's son and successor, marked his reign with notable developments:
• He constructed a fort at the confluence of the Ganga and the Son rivers in Pataliputra (Patna) and transferred the capital from Rajgriha to Pataliputra.
• Subsequent rulers like Anuruddha, Munda, and Naga-Dasak were comparatively weaker.

Shishunaga Dynasty (412-344 BC)

• Shishunaga, initially a minister, rose to power and played a significant role:
• He overthrew the Pradyota dynasty of Avanti and temporarily shifted the capital to Vaishali.
• Kalashoka (Kakavarin) succeeded Shishunaga, transferring the capital back to Pataliputra and convening the second Buddhist Council in Vaishali (383 BC).

Nanda Dynasty (344-322 BC)

• The Nanda Dynasty, founded by Mahapadma Nanda, marked a pivotal phase in Magadha's history:
• Mahapadma Nanda, a conqueror, expanded the empire by capturing Koshala and Kalinga.
• Dhanananda, the last Nanda ruler, deterred Alexander from advancing further into the Gangetic Valley during his invasion.

Pre-Mauryan Economic System

• The pre-Mauryan period witnessed notable changes in the economic landscape:
• An advanced food-producing economy emerged in the middle Gangetic plains, replacing cattle rearing with agriculture.
• Rice became the staple cereal produced in Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
• Iron played a crucial role in clearing rainfed forests for cultivation and settlement.
• A strong rural base supported urbanization and crafts, crucial for tax and tribute collection.
• The era witnessed the second urbanization in India, with towns emerging as centers of industry and trade.
• Burnt bricks and ring wells appeared in the middle of the NBPW phase (third century BC).
• Finished crafts, textile goods, sandalwood, and pearls were major export items, while precious stones like gold, lapis-lazuli, jade, silver, etc., were imported products.

Terms Related to the Pre-Mauryan Economic System

• Guilds emerged among specialized craftsmen to streamline the transportation of raw materials and the distribution of finished goods.
• During this period, guilds were not as highly developed as the mercantile systems they would become. Each guild occupied a specific section of the town.
• The introduction of a monetary system significantly eased trade. Metal coins first appeared during the age of Gautama Buddha.

• Rice was the primary grain, with common practices including paddy transplanting. Alongside rice, cotton, sugarcane, barley, millets, lentils, and other grains were cultivated.
• The adoption of iron plowshares and the fertility of the region's alluvial soil greatly advanced agriculture.

Pre-Mauryan Social System

• The tribal community was distinctly divided into four Varnas: Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.
• The Dharmasutras outlined the duties of each Varna, and civil and criminal law became based on this Varna division.
• Vaishyas were criticized for lending money.
• Shudras faced various disabilities, being deprived of religious and legal rights and relegated to the lowest position in society.
• Despite emerging socio-economic disparities, kinship ties remained crucial and were eventually integrated into the caste hierarchy.
• Extended kin groups were known as Nati and Nati-kulani.
• Kula referred to an extended patrilineal family, while Natakas included relatives from both maternal and paternal sides.
• Patriarchal tendencies prevailed, with women being subordinated to men. They were under male tutelage, not entitled to education, and excluded from the Upanayana ceremony.

Pre-Mauryan Administrative System

•  Magadha, located in the northeastern Indian state of Bihar, was a hereditary monarchy.
•  The emperor held absolute power and was assisted by a Ministerial Council known as the Mantriparishad.
•  Assemblies like Sabha and Samiti faded away, replaced by Parishads.
• The ministers were commonly referred to as Mantris.
•  Rajabhat referred to protectors of the lives and property of travelers.

Foreign Invasion

• In the fourth century BC, Greeks and Iranians vied for supremacy in the Indian subcontinent. Greek rulers not only conquered Asia Minor but also advanced towards India beyond the Indus plains.

Persian Invasion

• Cyrus (558-530 BC) of Persia was the first conqueror to penetrate deep into India, destroying the city of Capisa (North of Kabul).
•  In 516 BC, Darius I (552-486 BC), Cyrus's grandson, sent a naval expedition to explore the Sindhu River valley, annexing parts of Punjab and Sindh.
• Indian soldiers were part of the Achaemenid army that conquered Greece during the rule of Persian ruler Xerxes I (465-456 BC), Darius I's successor.
• Darius III enlisted Indian soldiers to combat Alexander the Great.

Effects of the Persian Invasion

• The invasion introduced the Aramaic form of writing, evolving into the Kharosthi scripts.
• It promoted Indo-Iranian trade.
• Geographical exploration of the Indus and Arabian Sea led to the discovery of a new water route.
• The fusion of Persian art forms became evident in Mauryan art and architecture.

Greek Invasion

• After conquering the Persian empire, Alexander marched to India through the Khyber Pass in 326 BC.
• Crossing the Indus, Alexander advanced towards Taxila. The King of Taxila, Ambhi, willingly submitted, offered assistance to Alexander, and acknowledged him as his sovereign.
• The most formidable among the North-Western Indians was the ruler of the kingdom between the Hydaspes (Jhelum) and the Acesines (Chenab), known to the Greeks as Porus.
•  Porus fought valiantly but was defeated and captured by Alexander.
• Alexander's progress was halted on the bank of the Beas, as his soldiers mutinied and refused to proceed after the Battle of Vitasta and Jhelum. His dream of an Eastern empire remained unrealized.
•  The king, undefeated by external foes, had to accept defeat from his own men. Alexander stayed in India for about 19 months.
• During his retreat, he divided the entire territory from the Indus to the Beas into three provinces, placing them under the supervision of three Greek Governors.

Effects of the Greek Invasion

• The Greek invasion of India opened a trade route between North-West India and Western Asia.
• The invasion led to the establishment of more Greek settlements in this region.
• Four distinct routes between India and Greece were opened by land and sea, fostering increased trade and cultural exchanges between the two regions.
• Indians learned from the Greeks in the fields of astronomy, coinage, architecture, and sculpture (Gandhara School of Sculpture).
• The Mauryan army adopted many military tactics from Alexander, assisting them in overthrowing the Nanda dynasty.

The Battle of Hydaspes

• The Battle of Hydaspes fought in 326 BC between Alexander the Great's Macedonian Army and King Porus (also known as Poru, Paurava), ended in victory for Alexander.
• Large areas of Punjab were absorbed into the Alexandrian empire, and the defeated Porus, dethroned, was reinstated by Alexander as a subordinate ruler.

Prelims facts

• By whom the first republic of the world was established in Vaishali?

- Licchavi [BPSC (Pre) 2000, 2008]

•  What was the name of Ujjain in ancient times?

- Avantika [UPPSC (Pre) 2009]

•  Matsya Mahajanapada of sixth century BC was located in which place?

- Rajasthan [UPPSC (Pre) 2017]

•  The capital of North Panchala, according to Mahabharata was located at

- Ahichatra [UPPSC (Mains) 2006)

•  In the post-Vedic period, which was considered as the axis of Aryan culture?

- Kuru, Panchala [UPPSC (Mains) 2007]

•  Which kingdom covered the modern Patna and Gaya districts of Bihar?

- Magadha [WBCS (Pre) 2018]

• With reference to the cultural history of India, the memorizing of chronicles, dynastic history and epic tales was the profession of whom?

- Magadha [IAS (Pre) 2016]

•  Name the celebrated physician in the court of King Bimbisara, who was also the personal physician of Lord Buddha.

- Jivaka [UPPSC (Pre) 2011]

•  By which ruler, Pataliputra was chosen as the capital for the first time?

- Udayin [BPSC (Pre) 2000, 2008]

• Who was the founder of the Nanda dynasty in Magadha?

Mahapadma Nand [UKPSC (Pre) 2014]

• The epigraphical evidence reveals that under the instructions of a Nanda king, a canal was dug in

- Kalinga [UPPSC (Pre) 1999]

• Which dynasty ruled over the Magadha after the Nanda dynasty?

- Maurya Dynasty [BPSC (Pre) 2000]

•  Which Magadha ruler was known as 'Seniya'?

- Bimbisara [WBCS (Pre) 2017]

•  What is the town configuration of the ancient Shravasti?

- Crescentic [UPPSC (Pre) 2010, 2017]

• Where was the seat of the first Republic of the world in 6th century BC?

- Vaishali [BPSC (Pre) 2004]

•  Which kingdom covered the modern Patna and Gaya districts of Bihar?

- Magadha [WBCS (Pre) 2018]

•  Chand Pradyot was the ruler of which Mahajanapada?

- Avanti [MPPSC (Pre) 2020]

•  Mahajanapada situated on the bank of river Godavari was

- Asmaka [RAS/RTS (Pre) 2008]

•  The list of Sixteen Mahajanapada is available in

- Anguttar Nikaya [BPSC (Pre) 2004)

• During the period of 16 Mahajanapada Mathura was the capital of

- Surasena [IPSC (Pre) 2013)

•  What was the name of the dynasty of

- Haryana [BPSC (Pre) 2011|

Self Check

1. which of the following text, the list of the 16 great states (Shodasa Mahajanapadas) of ancient

India occur?

1. Arthashastra
2. Anguttara Nikaya
3. Digha Nikaya
4. Anguttara Nikaya
5. Bhagavati Sutra

Select the correct answer from the codes given below.

(a) 1 and 2

(b) 2 and 4

(c) 1, 2 and 3.

(d) 2, 3 and 4

2. 16 Janapadas of the age of Mahajanapada have often been mentioned in the Buddhist literature.

RAS/RTS (Pre) 2013

Which of the following Janapadas have been mentioned by Panini in his Ashtadhyayi?

1. Magadha
2. Ashmaka
3. Kamboja,
4. Chedi
5. Vatsa

Select the correct answer using the codes given below.

(a) 4 and 5

(b) 3, 4 and 5

(c) 1, 3, 4 and 5

(d) 1,2 and 3

3. Match the Mahajanapadas and their kings.

MPSC (Pre) 2017

Codes

a) 1 3 2 4 

b) 3 1 42

c) 4 2 3 1

d) 2 3 1 4

4. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer from the codes given below the lists.

Codes

a) 1 2 3 4

b) 4 3 1 2

c) 3 4 2 1

d) 4 2 3 1

5. Which one of the following pairs is correctly matched?

RAS/RTS (Pre) 2013

(a) Parsvanath -     Janatrika

(b) Bindusara         Shakya

(c) Skandagupta   - Maurya

(d) Chetak               Lichchhavi

6. Chanda Pradyota was ruler of which ancient republic?

MPPSC (Pre) 2020

(a) Kashi

(b) Anga

 (c) Avanti

(d) Vajji

7. By whom the first republic of the world was established in Vaishali?

BPSC (Pre) 2000, 08

(a) Maurya

 (b) Nanda

 (c) Gupta 

(d) Lichchhavi

8. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer from the codes given below the lists.

UPPSC (Pre) 2020

Codes

1. a) 4 2 1 3
2. b) 3 1 4 2
3. c) 3 4 1 2
4. d) 2 3 4 1

9. Which of the following pairs is not correctly matched?

UPPSC (Pre) 2010

(a) Anga                          Champa

(b) Kosala                         Ahichatra

(c) Vatsa                          Kaushambi

(d) Matsya                         Viratnagar

10. With reference to the cultural history of India, the memorising of chronicles, dynastic histories, and epic tales was the profession of who of the following?IAS (Pre) 2016

(a) Shramana

(b) Parivraajaka

(c) Agrahaarika

(d) Magadha

11. Which of the following statements are true about Ajatashatru?

MPSC (Pre) 2017

1. His name was also Kunika.
2. He was the last ruler of the Haryanka dynasty.
3. The first Buddhist Council was held at Rajgriha during his regime.
4. He integrated Lichchhavi kingdom into Magadha.

Codes

(a) 1, 2 and 4

(b) 1,3 and 4

(d) 2, 3 and 4

(c) 1, 2 and 3

12. Arrange the following Magadha dynasties in the

CGPSC (Pre) 2008

chronological order.

1. Nandas
2. Shungas
3. Mauryas
4. Haryankas

Choose the correct answer from the following codes.

(a) 2, 1, 4 and 3

(b) 4, 1, 3 and 2

(c) 3, 2, 1 and 4

(d) 1, 3, 4 and 2

13. Which dynasty ruled over Magadha after the Nanda Dynasty?

BPSC (Pre) 2000

(a) Maurya

(b) Shunga

(c) Gupta

(d) Kushana

Know Right Answer

1 (b)

2 (d)

3 (b)

4 (b)

5 (d)

6 (c)

7 (d)

8(c)

9 (b)

10 (d)

11 (b)

12 (b)

13 (a)