The desire for reform in 19th-century India was underpinned by a variety of social and ideological factors. Here are some key elements that contributed to the reform movements:

Middle-Class Base:

1. Emerging Middle Class: The social base for regeneration and reform primarily consisted of the newly emerging middle class. This class included individuals engaged in government service, law, education, journalism, medicine, and other professions. Unlike the European middle class, the Indian counterpart did not originate from trade or industry but had its roots in various professions.
2. Western Education: Members of the intelligentsia in the 19th century India sought inspiration from the European middle class, particularly as they learned about the transformations in the West through Western education. The European middle class was seen as having played a crucial role in the transition from medieval to modern times through movements like the Renaissance, Reformation, Enlightenment, and democratic revolutions.
3. Contrast with Social Reality: Despite aspiring to middle-class ideals derived from Western education, the Indian intelligentsia often had a social base that was not predominantly middle-class. This contrast reflected the challenges and complexities of the socio-economic landscape in colonial India.

Influence of Western Ideals:

1. Awareness of Western Developments: The 19th-century intelligentsia in India was increasingly aware of contemporary developments in the West. Movements such as the Renaissance, Reformation, Enlightenment, and democratic revolutions in Europe served as models for societal transformation.
2. Ideological Transformation: The exposure to Western ideals of democracy, equality, and individual rights influenced the ideological framework of Indian reformers. They sought to apply these principles to address social issues, inequality, and the rigid caste system prevalent in Indian society.

Government Service and Professions:

1. Professional Background: Individuals involved in government service and various professions, including law, education, journalism, and medicine, played a significant role in the reform movements. Their professional backgrounds often intersected with some connection to land, such as intermediate tenures.
2. Roots in Multiple Spheres: The reformers had multifaceted connections, combining their roles in government service or professions with interests in education, journalism, and, at times, landownership. This multifaceted approach allowed them to address social issues from various angles.

The convergence of these factors created a dynamic environment where the Indian intelligentsia, inspired by Western ideals and motivated by a desire for social and cultural reform, played a pivotal role in shaping the reform movements of the 19th century.

The intellectual criteria that unified the reform movements in 19th-century India were characterized by rationalism, religious universalism, and humanism. Here are the key aspects that contributed to the ideological unity of these movements:

1. Rationalism:
   • Principle of Causality: Reformers, such as Raja Rammohan Roy, adhered to the principle of causality, which linked the entire phenomenal universe. They believed in demonstrability as the sole criterion of truth.
   • Analyzing Social Relevance: Akshay Kumar Dutt emphasized that all natural and social phenomena could be analyzed and understood through purely mechanical processes. Rationalism was employed to assess the social relevance of contemporary socio-religious practices.
   • Social Utility: The reformers used a rational approach to study tradition and evaluate current practices from the standpoint of social utility. This approach sought to replace blind faith with rationality.
2. Religious Universalism:
   • Critique of Vedas: In the Brahmo Samaj, the infallibility of the Vedas was repudiated. Reformers, like Raja Rammohan Roy, considered different religions as national embodiments of universal theism.
   • Universal Principles: The reformers defended the basic and universal principles shared by all religions, such as monotheism and unitarianism, while critiquing specific aspects like polytheism in Hinduism and trinitarianism in Christianity.
   • Syed Ahmed Khan's Perspective: Syed Ahmed Khan emphasized that all prophets had the same 'din' (faith), and different countries and nations had different prophets. He questioned the immutability of religious tenets.
3. Humanism:
   • Humanitarian Morality: Social reform movements embodied a new humanitarian morality, emphasizing that humanity can progress and has progressed. Moral values were defined in terms of favoring human progress.
   • Individual's Right to Interpret Scriptures: The humanist aspect was evident in the emphasis on the individual's right to interpret religious scriptures based on human reason and welfare. There was a general attack on priestly domination of religious practices.
   • Worldly Existence: Attention was focused on worldly existence rather than issues of salvation or other-worldliness. The emphasis was on addressing the dominant religious ideology influencing social practices.
4. Cultural and Ideological Regeneration:
   • Alternative Cultural-Ideological System: The reform movements aimed at evolving an alternative cultural-ideological system. This included attempts to reconstruct traditional knowledge, develop vernacular languages, create an alternative system of education, defend religion, revitalize Indian art and literature, emphasize Indian dress and food, and research pre-colonial technology.
   • Concerns Beyond Religious Reformation: While religious reformation was important, these movements addressed the entire cultural existence and way of life. They sought to regenerate traditional institutions and were concerned with issues ranging from language and education to art, literature, and technology.

In summary, the reform movements in 19th-century India were driven by a rational, universalistic, and humanistic approach, aiming at the socio-cultural regeneration of Indian society and the creation of an alternative cultural-ideological system.

The reform movements in 19th-century India can be broadly classified into two categories: reformist movements and revivalist movements. Here's an overview of each:

1. Reformist Movements:

Examples:

• Brahmo Samaj: Founded by Raja Rammohan Roy, the Brahmo Samaj rejected idol worship, caste distinctions, and other social evils. It aimed at monotheism and the worship of a formless God.
• Prarthana Samaj: Founded in Maharashtra, it emphasized the worship of one God and rejected idol worship. It also focused on promoting education and women's rights.

Characteristics:

• Rational Approach: Reformist movements tended to rely more on reason and conscience rather than strictly adhering to tradition.
• Critique of Social Evils: They actively critiqued prevalent social evils such as caste distinctions, idol worship, and superstitions.
• Universalistic Perspective: Many reformists had a universalistic perspective, emphasizing common principles in various religions.

2. Revivalist Movements:

Examples:

• Arya Samaj: Founded by Swami Dayananda Saraswati, the Arya Samaj aimed to reform Hinduism by going back to the Vedas. It opposed idol worship, caste distinctions, and believed in promoting Vedic knowledge.
• Deobandi Movement: Originating from the Darul Uloom Deoband seminary, this movement aimed to preserve traditional Islamic teachings and resist Western influences.

Characteristics:

• Emphasis on Tradition: Revivalist movements leaned more towards a reliance on tradition and sought to revive the perceived lost purity of their respective religions.
• Return to Scriptures: They often emphasized a return to the original scriptures of their religions (Vedas in the case of Arya Samaj, and Quran and Hadith in the case of the Deobandi movement).
• Resistance to Change: Revivalist movements were, to some extent, resistant to modern influences and aimed at preserving the traditional aspects of their faith.

General Distinction:

The primary difference between these two streams lies in the degree to which they relied on tradition or reason and conscience. Reformist movements were more inclined towards rationalism and critique of social practices, while revivalist movements often sought to return to the roots of their respective religions and revive traditional practices.

Both streams, however, played significant roles in addressing social and religious issues, contributing to the broader socio-religious reform movements in 19th-century India.

The direction of social reform in 19th-century India was influenced by humanistic ideals of social equality and the equal worth of all individuals. Initially linked to religious reforms, social reform movements addressed issues such as untouchability and gender-based inequity, often legitimized by religion. Over time, the social reform movements gradually dissociated from religion, adopting a more secular approach.

Key points about the direction of social reform include:

1. Religious Connection: Social reform movements were closely connected to religious reforms because many social issues were justified or perpetuated through religious beliefs. Reformers initially addressed these issues within a religious framework.
2. Narrow Social Base: Initially, social reform movements had a limited social base, mainly comprising the upper and middle classes and upper castes. These individuals sought to reconcile modernized views with existing social conditions.
3. Expansion to Lower Strata: As time progressed, social reform movements expanded to include the lower strata of society. Reformers aimed to revolutionize and reconstruct the social sphere, reaching beyond the privileged classes.
4. Key Organizations and Individuals: Organizations like the Social Conference, Servants of India Society, and Christian missionaries played instrumental roles in social reform. Enlightened individuals such as Jyotiba Phule, Gopalhari Deshmukh, K.T. Telang, B.M. Malabari, D.K. Karve, Sri Narayana Guru, E.V. Ramaswami Naicker, and B.R. Ambedkar contributed significantly.
5. National Movement's Influence: With the onset of the 20th century, the national movement provided leadership and organizational support for social reform. The broader goal was to create a more equitable and just society.
6. Use of Indian Languages: To reach the masses, reformers used Indian languages to propagate their ideas. Various forms of media, including novels, dramas, poetry, short stories, the press, and later the cinema in the 1930s, were employed to spread their opinions.
7. Two-Point Agenda: The social reform movements had a two-point agenda: the improvement of the status of women in society and the removal of disabilities arising from untouchability. These issues were central to the broader social reform objectives.

The evolving direction of social reform reflected a transition from religiously oriented initiatives to more secular approaches and a widening of the movement's social base to encompass various sections of society.

The fight for the betterment of the position of women during the 19th century in India was a critical aspect of social reform movements. Here are some key points regarding the efforts made to improve the status of women:

Status of Women in the 19th Century:

1. Low Social Status: Women were generally accorded a low status, considered inferior to men, and were suppressed by practices such as purdah, early marriage, ban on widow-marriage, and sati.
2. Social and Economic Dependence: Hindu and Muslim women were socially and economically dependent on male relatives. Education was often denied to them, and they lacked the right to inherit property or terminate undesirable marriages.
3. Degrading Customs: Practices like polygamy, purdah, child marriage, and restrictions on widow marriage were prevalent. The glorification of women as wives and mothers was the primary way society recognized their contribution.

Reformers' Efforts:

1. Appeal to Doctrines of Individualism and Equality: Reformers appealed to the doctrines of individualism and equality, arguing that true religion did not sanction an inferior status for women.
2. Fight Against Degrading Customs: Reformers raised their voice against degrading customs such as polygamy, purdah, child marriage, and restrictions on widow marriage.
3. Establishment of Educational Facilities: Efforts were made to establish educational facilities for women, recognizing that education was crucial for their empowerment.

Steps Taken for Women's Emancipation:

1. Abolition of Sati: The British government, influenced by Indian reformers led by Raja Rammohan Roy, declared the practice of sati illegal and punishable by criminal courts through the regulation of 1829.
2. Preventing Female Infanticide: Regulations in Bengal in 1795 and 1804 declared infanticide illegal. An act passed in 1870 made it compulsory for parents to register the birth of all babies, particularly females, in areas where infanticide was practiced.
3. Widow Remarriage: The Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act, 1856, legalized the marriage of widows and declared children from such marriages as legitimate. Efforts by reformers like Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar and Vishnu Shastri Pandit played a significant role.
4. Controlling Child Marriage: The Native Marriage Act (or Civil Marriage Act), 1872, prohibited child marriage, but it had limited applicability. The Age of Consent Act (1891) and the Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929 (Sarda Act) further addressed the issue, raising the age of marriage for girls.
5. Rukhmabai Case: The case of Rukhmabai, who challenged the validity of her child marriage, brought attention to the rights of women. The legal battle led to significant debates on child marriage and women's rights.
6. Later Legislative Measures: In free India, the Child Marriage Restraint (Amendment) Act, 1978, raised the age of marriage for girls from 15 to 18 years and for boys from 18 to 21.

The efforts of reformers and subsequent legislative measures played a crucial role in challenging traditional norms and improving the status of women in Indian society.

Women's Education in 19th Century India:

Initiatives by Christian Missionaries:

1. Calcutta Female Juvenile Society (1819): Christian missionaries were pioneers, establishing the Calcutta Female Juvenile Society in 1819, indicating an early interest in promoting education for girls.
2. Bethune School (1849): The Bethune School, founded by J.E.D. Bethune in Calcutta in 1849, was a significant outcome of the 1840s and 1850s movement for women's education. Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was associated with numerous girls' schools in Bengal.

Maharashtra Pioneers:

1. Jagannath Shankarsheth and Bhau Daji: Jagannath 'Nana' Shankarsheth and Bhau Daji were active promoters of girls' schools in Maharashtra. Shankarsheth was a founder of the School Society and Native School of Bombay, contributing to the cause of education.

Jyotirao Phule and Savitribai:

1. Jyotirao Phule and Savitribai (1848): Jyotirao Phule and his wife Savitribai were notable pioneers in promoting the education of women. In 1848, they opened the first school for girls in Bhidewada, Pune, facing opposition due to societal norms. Savitribai became the first female school teacher of modern India.

Parsi and Bombay University:

1. Alexandra Society of Parsis (1863): The Alexandra Society aimed at educating Parsi girls, contributing to the broader effort.
2. Bombay University's First Woman Graduate (1887): Cornelia Sorabji, a Parsi woman, became the first woman graduate of Bombay University in 1887, advocating for equal opportunities in education.

Government Support and Later Initiatives:

1. Government Support (1854): Lord Dalhousie declared support for female education, and Charles Wood's Despatch on Education in 1854 emphasized the need for it.
2. Women’s Medical Service (1914): The Women’s Medical Service in 1914 played a crucial role in training nurses and midwives.
3. Indian Women’s University (1916): Professor D.K. Karve established the Indian Women’s University in 1916, a notable institution for women's education.
4. Health Facilities and Political Participation: Health facilities for women began with the opening of Dufferin hospitals in the 1880s. Women actively participated in political movements, including swadeshi, anti-partition, Home Rule, and later, post-1918, in trade union, kisan, and revolutionary movements. They also engaged in electoral politics, Sarojini Naidu being an example.

Conclusion:

Private Indian initiatives, often in the face of opposition from orthodox sections of society, played a crucial role in promoting women's education during the 19th century. The subsequent decades saw the establishment of key educational institutions and the active participation of women in various social and political movements, marking a significant shift in societal perceptions of women's roles and capabilities.

The period after 1920 witnessed the emergence of an assertive women's movement in India, led by aware and self-confident women. Various organizations and institutions played crucial roles in advancing the cause of women's rights during this time:

Women's Organizations:

1. Bharat Stree Mahamandal (1910):
• Sarla Devi Chaudhurani convened the first meeting.
• Objectives included the promotion of education for women, abolition of the purdah system, and improvement in the socio-economic and political status of women.
2. Ladies Social Conference (1904):
• Founded by Ramabai Ranade in Bombay under the parent organization National Social Conference.
• Aims included social reforms and women's empowerment.
3. Arya Mahila Samaj:
• Founded by Pandita Ramabai Saraswati to serve the cause of women.
• Pleaded for improvements in the educational syllabus of Indian women.
4. National Council of Women in India (1925):
• Formed as a national branch of the International Council of Women.
• Advocated for social reforms and women's rights.
• Notable members included Cornelia Sorabji, Tarabai Premchand, Shaffi Tyabji, and Maharani Sucharu Devi.
5. All India Women’s Conference (AIWC - 1927):
• Founded by Margaret Cousins, with an egalitarian approach.
• Objectives included working for a society based on principles of social justice, integrity, equal rights, and opportunities.
• Worked towards various legislative reforms before and after India's independence.

Legislative Reforms Advocated by AIWC:

1. Sarda Act (1929):
• Also known as the Child Marriage Restraint Act, aimed at prohibiting child marriages.
2. Hindu Women’s Right to Property Act (1937):
• Addressed the rights of Hindu women to inherit property.
3. Factory Act (1947):
• Focused on regulating the working conditions of women in factories.
4. Hindu Marriage and Divorce Act (1954):
• Addressed issues related to Hindu marriage and divorce.
5. Special Marriage Act (1954):
• Provided a special form of marriage for the people of India and all Indian nationals in foreign countries irrespective of the religion or faith followed by either party.
6. Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act (1956):
• Dealt with matters of minority and guardianship among Hindus.
7. Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act (1956):
• Addressed issues related to adoption and maintenance among Hindus.
8. Suppression of Immoral Traffic in Women Act (1958):
• Aimed at curbing immoral trafficking.
9. Maternity Benefits Act (1961):
• Focused on the rights of women in employment during maternity.
10. Dowry Prohibition Act (1961):
• Aimed at prohibiting the giving or taking of dowry.
11. Equal Remuneration Act (1958, 1976):
• Addressed the issue of equal remuneration for equal work.

The All India Women’s Conference played a pivotal role in advocating and influencing key legislative reforms that significantly impacted the status and rights of women in India.

The struggle against caste-based exploitation in India has a long history, and efforts to address the discriminatory institution of caste, particularly against the "untouchables" or scheduled castes/dalits, gained momentum over the years. Here are some key aspects of this struggle:

Historical Background:

1. Vedic Society and Caste System:
• The later-Vedic conception of the four-fold division of Hindu society evolved into a complex system with numerous sub-castes.
• The caste system, based on the idea of chaturvarnashrama, determined social status, occupations, and interactions among various sections of the population.

Discrimination Against Untouchables:

1. Untouchability and Social Discrimination:
• The discriminatory institution of caste led to the creation of a social hierarchy, with certain groups, especially the untouchables, facing severe discrimination.
• Untouchables were subjected to humiliating and inhuman treatment, facing restrictions on education, property ownership, choice of profession, social interactions, and even entry into temples.

Reform Movements and Leaders:

1. B.R. Ambedkar:
• Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, a prominent leader and jurist, emerged as a key figure in the struggle against caste discrimination.
• He advocated for the rights of Dalits and played a crucial role in the drafting of the Indian Constitution, which includes provisions for the upliftment of scheduled castes and tribes.
2. Dalit Movements:
• Various Dalit movements and organizations were formed to address the social and economic inequalities faced by the scheduled castes.
• Leaders like Jyotirao Phule, Ayyankali, and Periyar E.V. Ramasamy actively worked for the upliftment of Dalits.

Legal Measures:

1. Constitutional Safeguards:
• The Indian Constitution, adopted in 1950, includes provisions such as reservations in educational institutions and government jobs for scheduled castes and tribes to promote their social and economic well-being.
2. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989:
• Enacted to prevent atrocities against scheduled castes and tribes, the Act provides for legal measures and punishment for offenses committed against members of these communities.

Social Awareness and Education:

1. Awareness Campaigns:
• Various awareness campaigns have been conducted to challenge caste-based discrimination and promote social harmony.
• Movements like the "Dalit Panthers" aimed at creating awareness about the rights and dignity of Dalits.
2. Education Initiatives:
• Efforts have been made to promote education among the scheduled castes, empowering them to challenge social norms and contribute to the nation's development.

Ongoing Challenges:

1. Persisting Discrimination:
• Despite legal and social reforms, caste-based discrimination continues to persist in some parts of the country.
• Social attitudes and practices take time to change, and ongoing efforts are needed to ensure equality and justice for all.

The struggle against caste-based exploitation is a complex and ongoing process, involving legal, social, and educational interventions to bring about positive change and inclusivity in Indian society.

Factors that Helped to Mitigate Caste-based Discrimination:

1. British Rule and Administrative Measures:
• British rule inadvertently created conditions that undermined caste consciousness. Administrative measures, such as the introduction of private property in land and the free sale of land, upset traditional caste equations.
• Modern commerce, industry, and growing urbanization provided economic avenues, breaking down the close link between caste and vocation.
• British administration introduced the concept of equality before the law, dealing a blow to social and legal inequalities. Caste panchayats' judicial functions were replaced by a uniformly applied system of law.
2. Social Reform Movements:
• Social reform movements, starting from the mid-19th century, played a significant role in undermining caste-based exploitation.
• Organizations like Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Arya Samaj, and individuals worked to spread education among the untouchables and advocated for the removal of restrictions on them, such as temple entry.
3. National Movement for Independence:
• The national movement drew inspiration from principles of liberty and equality, opposing caste privileges and fighting for equal civic rights.
• Mass participation in demonstrations, meetings, and satyagraha struggles diluted caste divisions. Congress governments in provinces after 1937 took steps for the upliftment of depressed classes, including free education for Harijans.
4. Gandhi's Role and All India Harijan Sangh:
• Mahatma Gandhi, motivated by humanism and reason, aimed at eradicating untouchability. He founded the All India Harijan Sangh in 1932.
• Gandhi argued against the sanction of untouchability in religious texts and worked towards integrating untouchables into mainstream society.
5. Awakening Among Lower Castes:
• Increasing opportunities for education and general awareness led to stirrings among lower castes themselves.
• Leaders like Jyotiba Phule in Maharashtra prioritized the education of lower castes, especially girls, and initiated movements against Brahminical domination.
6. Dalit Leaders and Movements:
• Leaders like Gopal Baba Walangkar and Kisan Faguji Bansod challenged caste discrimination and worked towards the upliftment of Dalits.
• Babasaheb Ambedkar, a prominent Dalit leader, fought against upper-caste tyranny throughout his life. He founded organizations, started newspapers, and advocated for the annihilation of the caste system.
7. Legal Measures and Representation:
• The struggle of the depressed classes led to the provision of special representation for them in the Government of India Act, 1935.
• Legal measures, including constitutional safeguards and affirmative action through reservations, were introduced to promote social and economic well-being.

The collective efforts of various movements, leaders, legal measures, and social changes have contributed to mitigating caste-based discrimination in India. Despite progress, challenges persist, and ongoing efforts are necessary for achieving true social equality.

Movements Against Caste-Based Discrimination in the 1900s:

1. Non-Brahmin Movement in Southern States:
• In the early 20th century, the non-brahmin movement gained momentum in the southern states, encouraged by leaders like the Maharaja of Kolhapur.
• The movement attracted support from intermediate castes such as Kammas, Reddis, Vellalas, and Muslims.
2. Self-Respect Movement in South India (1920s):
• The Self-Respect Movement emerged in South India during the 1920s, led by E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker.
• The movement aimed at challenging regressive customs and demanded the lifting of the ban on the entry of lower castes into temples.
3. Struggles Against Caste-Based Practices:
• Sri Narayana Guru in Kerala led a lifelong struggle against upper-caste domination. He advocated the slogan "one religion, one caste, one God for mankind."
• The disciple of Narayana Guru, Sahadaran Ayyapan, modified the slogan to "no religion, no caste, no God for mankind."
4. Mahad Satyagraha (1927) Led by Dr Bhimrao Ambedkar:
• Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar organized the Mahad Satyagraha in March 1927 to challenge regressive caste customs.
• Ambedkar emphasized the need to eliminate the ideas of 'high' and 'low' and promoted self-elevation through self-help, self-respect, and self-knowledge.
• The Mahad Satyagraha included a symbolic act where Ambedkar and his followers took water from the Chawdar tank, a public water source forbidden to untouchables.
5. Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha (1924):
• Dr. Ambedkar established the Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha in 1924 to represent the grievances of the dalits before the government.
• The Sabha's motto was "Educate, Agitate, and Organise," reflecting its commitment to the upliftment of the marginalized sections.
6. Constitution of Free India (Post-1947):
• The Constitution of free India, drafted after gaining independence, made equality and non-discrimination on the basis of caste imperative.
• It abolished untouchability and declared any endorsement of disabilities arising from untouchability as unlawful.
• The Constitution forbids restrictions on access to public places such as wells, tanks, bathing ghats, hotels, cinemas, and clubs.
• The Directive Principles of the Constitution emphasize the promotion of a social order where justice—social, economic, and political—guides all national institutions.

The movements and struggles against caste-based discrimination in the 1900s laid the groundwork for legal and constitutional measures aimed at achieving social justice and equality in independent India.