• The large landmasses are known as the continents. There are seven major continents in the world which are separated by large water bodies. These continents are Asia, Europe, Africa, North America, South America, Australia and Antarctica.

Asia

• As the largest continent on Earth, Asia spans an impressive 44,557,000 sq. km, constituting one-third of the global land area. As of 2021, it is home to over 59% of the world's population.
•  Positioned between 10°S and 80°N latitudes, Asia encompasses a diverse range of climates, extending from the hottest to the coolest regions. While its latitudinal range is from 10°S to 80°N, the majority of Asia's landmass is situated north of the Equator. Longitudinally, it stretches from 25°E to 17°W, with its East-West extension covering half the globe's surface, primarily in the Eastern hemisphere but with a portion in the Western hemisphere.
• Bordered by three oceans—Pacific to the East, Indian to the South, and Arctic to the North—Asia boasts a strategic geographical location.
• The Ural Mountains, Caspian Sea, Caucasus Mountains, and Black Sea act as natural boundaries between Asia and Europe, while the New Guinea islands delineate the separation between the Asian and Australian continents.
•  Known as the continent of varieties, Asia exhibits extremes in temperature, with the highest recorded at Tirat Zvi, Israel (54°C) and the lowest at Verkhoyansk, Siberia (-69°C).
•  Asia's coastal length is 69,000 km (except the coastal length of islands) and land extension from North to South is 6,400 km and 9,650 km from East to West.
• Three out of the four most populous countries in the world (China, India and Indonesia) are located in Asia.
• Japan has the longest life expectancy (80.9 years for men and 86.6 years for women) in world.

Major locations of Asian Continent are Northernmost point- Chelyuskin, Russia (77°43'N)

• Southernmost point- Tanjung Piai, Malaysia (10°14'N)
• Easternmost point- Cape Dezhnev, Siberia (169°40'W)
• Westernmost point- Cape Bosporus, Turkey (26°4'E)

Physical Features

Asia can be categorized into five primary physical divisions, outlined below.

The Northern Lowlands

• Stretching from the Ural Mountains in the West to the Bering Strait in the North, Asia's Northern lowlands take on a triangular shape, with their widest point in the West.
• The Siberian plain, in the northern part of the continent, is traversed by rivers such as Ob, Yenisei, and Lena, flowing from South to North and eventually draining into the Arctic Ocean.
• Winter's grip on the polar region leads to the blocking of water in the upper courses, resulting in the inundation of a significant portion of the flat plain, creating swampy and marshy conditions.
• This region is home to Lake Baikal, the world's deepest lake, holding 20% of the Earth's freshwater lakes.

The Central Mountain Belt

• The Pamir Plateau in central Asia acts as a mountain knot, giving rise to various mountain chains that extend in different directions. Westward chains enclose the plateaus of Iran and Anatolia.
•  The Himalayas, Karakoram, and Kunlun mountain chains run eastward, encompassing the Tibetan Plateau, the highest and largest plateau globally. The vast Gobi Desert lies to the North-East.

The Southern Plateaus

• South of the central mountain belt, ancient rock plateaus emerge, including the Arabian Plateau, Deccan Plateau, and the Shan and Yunnan Plateau.
• The Arabian Plateau, situated in the South-West part of Asia, is a dry sand desert surrounded by the Persian Gulf in the East, the Red Sea in the West, and the Arabian Sea in the South.
•  The Deccan Plateau in India is one of the oldest plateaus, bordered by the Western Ghats in the West, Eastern Ghats in the East, and the Satpura, Maikal Range, and Mahadeo Hills in the North.

The Great River Valleys

• Significant valleys formed by rivers like Tigris-Euphrates, Indus, Ganga-Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Mekong, Sikiang, Changjiang, and Hwang Ho mark fertile regions densely populated by civilizations.
• The Tigris-Euphrates valley, located along the banks of these rivers, is the cradle of the Mesopotamian civilization (Iraq).
• The Ganga-Brahmaputra delta, before entering the Bay of Bengal, forms the world's largest delta, with a highly indented coastline.

Island Groups of South-East and East Asia

• Prominent island groups include Indonesia, the Philippines, and Japan.
• These islands, mostly mountainous, are renowned for their active or recently active volcanoes.
• Positioned primarily in the Eastern and Northern hemispheres, Asia is crossed by the Equator, Tropic of Cancer, and Arctic Circle.
• Separated from Africa by the Red Sea and Suez Canal, it is also divided from North America by the Bering Strait.
• The Arabian Peninsula stands as the world's largest peninsula, and the Mariana Trench, the world's deepest trench, lies in the Pacific Ocean near the Philippines.
• The Pamir Plateau, known as the Roof of the World, is situated in Central Asia.
• Noteworthy peninsulas include the Arabian Peninsula, Indo-Chinese Peninsula, and Deccan Peninsula.
• Important island groups encompass Andaman and Nicobar, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Japan.
• Major straits include the Malacca Strait, Palk Strait, Sunda Strait, Bering Strait, Bonne-Fasio Strait, Bosphorus Strait, Hormuz Strait, Makassar Strait, Tsungaru Strait, and Formosa Strait.

Major Rivers of Asia

Major Straits of Asia

Major deserts and plains of Asia

Climate

• The extensive size of Asia results in a wide range of climates, influenced by significant differences in elevation.
• Winter in the central part of Asia brings temperatures below freezing, causing the air to contract and form a high-pressure area.
• Dry winds from this region pick up moisture only when passing over the sea, leading to rainfall in Japan, parts of South-East Asia, and the Southern-East coast of India and Sri Lanka during this season.
• In summer, the heating of air creates a low-pressure area, drawing in air from cooler surrounding oceans and causing rainfall across most of Asia.
• Annual rainfall varies significantly across Asia, with places like Mawsynram in the East Khasi hill district of Meghalaya (India) being the wettest on Earth, while desert regions (from the Red Sea to Mongolia) may not see rain for many years.

Soil

• South and South-East Asia predominantly feature soils of red or black color, rich in aluminum and iron oxides, low in silica, nearly structureless, and generally of low fertility.
• Arabian and Central Asian deserts have soils high in unleached minerals but may lack nitrogen and humus.
• Regions with high water tables accumulate evaporation salts near the surface, resulting in alkaline soils. Red desert soils cover much of the Arabian Peninsula and North-West India, while higher desert soils are found in the rest of South-West Asian countries.
• Large parts of Northern Asia are covered by podzolic soils with varying but generally low fertility, mainly in regions with well-distributed rainfall at mid to high latitudes.
• The predominant soils in Asia are relatively young alluvial soils found in river valleys. These alluvial soils cover areas such as the Tigris-Euphrates river valleys, the plains of the Indus-Ganga rivers, the lower Irrawaddy basin, the deltas of the Mekong, and the lower basins of the Chang Jiang and Huang He rivers. They are also present in the river plains of smaller rivers in India, Malaysia, the Philippines, Taiwan, Korea, and Japan.
• Certain islands in Indonesia and Southern Philippines contain active volcanoes, periodically contributing a layer of rich basic soils from recently deposited volcanic materials.

Agriculture

• Agriculture in some mountainous and forested areas involves shifting cultivation, where a patch of forest is cleared by burning trees, commonly practiced by people in the mountains of South and South-East Asia. Intensive agriculture, requiring manual labor on small pieces of land, is prevalent in plains and river valleys. 
• Extensive agriculture, on the other hand, is employed in some parts of Central Asia and West Siberia, where machines are used due to the vast size of the farms.

Crops

• Major crops in Asia include rice, with more than 90% of the world's rice production occurring in China, India, Japan, Bangladesh, and countries of South-East Asia.
•  Wheat is grown in sub-tropical and temperate lands of Russia, Ukraine, India, Pakistan, and South-West Asia. Millets like bajra, jowar, and ragi are cultivated in semi-arid regions, along with pulses and oilseeds.
• Cash crops such as cotton, jute, sugarcane, and tea are significant contributors to the economy. Cotton is grown in China, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, India, Pakistan, and South-West Asia, while jute is produced in the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta, sugarcane in India, Indonesia, and Pakistan, and tea in India, Sri Lanka, China, Japan, and Indonesia.

Vegetation 

• The natural vegetation of Asia varies based on climate. The Tundra vegetation along the Northern coast is covered with snow and ice for most of the year, characterized by short and cool summers. 
• The Taiga, south of the Tundra, is a broad belt of coniferous forest known for severe winters and warm summers, home to softwood trees like fir, spruce, and pine. 
• The Steppe, a temperate grassland, experiences cold winters and fairly hot summers, supporting grasses but not trees. 
• Deserts, such as the hot deserts of Thar and Arabia in the Southwest and the cold deserts of Gobi and Tibet in the North, have unfavorable conditions for plant growth, hosting shrubs, thorny bushes, and poor grasses.
• Monsoon forests are found in South, South-East, and East Asia, with useful trees like teak, sal, and sandalwood. Elephants are typical animals of monsoon forests. In North-Eastern Asia, monsoon forests transition into temperate woodlands. Equatorial forests are located in the extremely Southern part of Asia.

Forest

• Asia boasts three primary types of forests: coniferous forests, monsoon forests, and equatorial forests.
• Coniferous forests are present in Russia, Japan, and the Himalayan region, providing softwood used for timber, paper pulp, and rayon.
• Monsoon forests are found in India, Myanmar, and parts of South-East Asia, offering valuable trees such as teak, sal, and bamboo.
•  Equatorial forests are located in Malaysia and Indonesia, with a significant portion converted into rubber estates. Thailand stands as the largest producer and exporter of rubber globally.

Minerals

• Key mineral resources in Asia include iron, manganese, tungsten, bauxite, mica, tin, coal, and oil.
• Iron ore is abundant in India, China, Russia, and Azerbaijan, while mica deposits are mainly found in India. Malaysia is rich in tin deposits.
• Large coal deposits are found in China, Russia, and India.
•  Countries in South-West Asia possess substantial oil deposits, with leading producers being Kuwait, Bahrain, Iraq, Iran, and Russia. Myanmar, Indonesia, and India also contribute significantly to oil production.

Population

• Asia is the most populous continent globally, representing 59.76% of the total world population as of 2021.
• The average population density in Asia is 150 persons per square kilometer.
• Sparse populations are found in Northern and Eastern Siberia, the deserts and highlands of Asia, the Arabian desert, the plateau of Iran, and the Thar desert in India.
• The densely populated areas include the plains of India, Bangladesh, Java island in Indonesia, and the plains of China and Japan.
• Eastern and South-Eastern Asia, primarily comprising Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Filipino, Malaysian, Indonesian, Thai, Myanmarese, and other populations, make up more than one-third of the continent's population.
• Brown people, including those from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and other South Asian countries, inhabit the region.
• South-West Asia is home to Arabs, Turks, Persians, Afghans, and various other groups, while Central Asia hosts Mongols, Kazakhs, Uzbeks, and Kirghiz.
• Asians consume up to 90% of the total world production of rice.

Asia's Top 10 Cities with Urban Population

• Tokyo (Japan)
• Jakarta (Indonesia)
• Delhi (India)
• Mumbai (India)
• Seoul (South Korea)
• Shanghai (China)
• Manila (Philippines)
• Karachi (Pakistan)
• Beijing (China)
• Guangzhou (China)
• Singapore, South Korea, and Japan have the highest average Intelligence Quotient (IQ) on the planet.
• Largest city in terms of population: Tokyo
• Land area: 44,579,000 sq. km
• Largest lake: Baikal lake
• Major religions: Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism

Major Countries of Asian Continent

Important countries of asia and their capitals

Africa

• Africa is the second largest continent in the world, both in size and population. It occupies about 20% of the land area of Earth.
• Africa is the hottest continent on the Earth.
• Africa has the shortest coastline despite being the second largest continent in the world.
• Africa is the most centrally located continent in the world. Both the prime meridian (0° longitude) and the Equator (0° degrees latitude) cut across it.
• The African continents terrain was inhabitable and remained unknown for thousands of years, earning it the name of Dark Continent.
• The African continent is separated from Europe by the Mediterranean sea and from Asia by the Red sea. It touches Eurasia at three different points namely the Strait of Gibraltar in North-West, Suez canal in North-East and the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb in East.
• The Equator passes through the middle of the African continent and it receives direct sunlight throughout the year.
• Nigeria has the highest population (154.7 million people) in Africa. This represents 18% of Africa's total population. 
• Africa is home to both the tallest and largest land animals, the giraffe, and African elephant, respectively.
• Algeria holds the title of being the largest country in Africa by land area. Ethiopia, situated in Africa, boasts the world's hottest place.

Physical Features

• The highest peak in Africa is Kilimanjaro, standing at 5,895 meters and remaining snow-covered throughout the year.
• The Great Rift Valley in Africa stretches from the South of Lake Malawi Northward to the Red Sea, continuing through the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba to the Dead Sea.
• Approximately one-third of Africa comprises desert land, with the Sahara, located in the Northern part, ranking as the world's largest desert. The Kalahari desert in Southern Africa is another significant desert.

Drainage System

• Victoria is the largest lake in Africa and the source of the River Nile, the world's longest river. After traversing the Sahara desert, it reaches the Mediterranean Sea.
•  Zaire river in central Africa is later known as Congo, carrying the greatest amount of water into the Atlantic Ocean.
• Niger in the Western part, and the Zambezi and Orange in the Northern part, are other important rivers in Africa.
• Apart from the Nile and Zaire rivers, few African rivers are suitable for shipping due to their descent from higher plateaus to coastal lowlands, forming waterfalls.
• Victoria Falls on the Zambezi surpasses the famous Niagara Falls in North America in both height and width.

Climate and Vegetation

• Africa spans between 37° 14′ N to 34° 50' S latitudes, with a major part lying within the tropical zone.
• Africa is the most tropical of all continents, recording the highest temperature globally at Al-Aziziyah (Libya) as 58°C.
• The equatorial belt along both sides of the Equator experiences equatorial climate with almost daily rainfall and a hot-wet summer season, leading to the formation of thick forests known as tropical rainforests, hosting diverse wildlife.
• Within rainforests, there are regions with warm summers and mild winters, characterized by less rainfall, known as Sudan climate, predominant in a large part of the continent with grassy vegetation.
• Extensive deserts in Northern and Southern Africa have a hot and extremely dry desert climate with either no vegetation or only scrub and bushes.
• The Northern and Southern coasts experience a Mediterranean climate with mild and rainy winters and warm and dry summers. The highlands of Southern and Eastern Africa have a cooler climate.

Soil

• Only 10% of African soil is suitable for crops, including volcanic soils in East Africa, alluvial soil in the Nile valley, and fertile soils in the Savanna lands.

Forests

• Large parts of central Africa are covered with dense forests yielding hardwood for timber, including valuable trees like Mahogany, Ebony, and Kapok. Rubber trees from South America grow wild, and Africa exports rubber on a large scale.
• Coconut palm trees are found on tropical islands like Zanzibar and Pemba and along the equatorial coast, yielding Copra for coconut oil.
• West Africa is home to oil palms, the source of palm oil.
• Date palms grow in oases in drier regions, providing an essential food item. Egypt exports a significant amount of dates. Cocoa and kola trees are sources of beverages.
• Cocoa, used in chocolate production, thrives in the equatorial lowlands of West African countries like Ghana and Nigeria.
• Kola trees produce nuts used in cola drinks and chewing gum. The tropical region in Africa cultivates banana, pineapple, jackfruit, mango, and citrus fruit trees, while the Mediterranean region grows olives, apples, peaches, and grapes. East Africa specializes in cashew nuts, and Zanzibar and Pemba islands are major global producers and exporters of cloves.

Wildlife

• Wildlife in Africa's forests and swamps includes elephants, wild buffaloes, snakes, pythons, monkeys, hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, deer, stags, zebras, giraffes, camels in deserts, and ostriches in the Kalahari desert. 
• In the higher Savanna regions, nomadic tribes graze cattle, and major animals include cheetahs, African elephants, lions, zebras, Egyptian mongooses, giraffes, and addax.

Minerals and Energy Resources

• Africa contributes 95% of the world's diamond production and over half of the world's gold production. 
• South Africa is a major producer of gold and platinum, with Johannesburg being called Guiden city. Africa possesses significant reserves of cobalt, manganese, chromium, copper, tin, bauxite, and uranium, but coal and iron ore are scarce. South Africa leads in chromium production.
•  Congo and South Africa are major producers of copper, bauxite, and uranium, while petroleum is found in Nigeria, Libya, and Angola.

Agriculture

• Only 10% of Africa's land is cultivable, where both food and cash crops are grown. Root crops like yams and cassava are predominant, and West Africa specializes in palm oil and groundnuts, with Nigeria exporting a large amount of palm oil. Cocoa and coffee from Africa are major contributors to world trade.
• Cotton has been grown in the Nile valley for thousands of years. Africa is a significant producer and exporter of sisal, with Tanzania leading in sisal production. Zanzibar and Pemba are famous for cloves and coconuts.

Industries

• South Africa's major industrial complexes include Pretoria, Johannesburg, and virgin areas with iron, steel, machinery, garment, and chemical industries. 
• Egypt, South Africa's Johannesburg, Durban, and East London host the cotton clothes industry, while Johannesburg, Cairo (Egypt), and Nigeria are centers for the cement industry.

Transportation

• Africa faces transportation challenges due to extensive deserts and thick forests hindering road and railway construction.
• Major ports include Durban, Port of Richard Bay, and Port Dar Es Salaam (Tanzania). Major airports connecting Africa to the world are located in Cairo, Johannesburg, and Cape Town.

Population

• About 70% of Africa's population is black, with Nigeria having the largest population. As of the World Population Prospect 2019, Africa's population is 1308 million, and the population density is 44 per sq. km. Swahili is widely understood, and people also speak English, Arabic, Italian, and French.

Different religion such as Islam, Christianity and Animism are followed by people of Africa. Animism is the religion followed by many tribes.

• The largest waterfall in Africa is the Victoria falls and it is located on the Zimbabwe and Zambia border.
• It has a height of 355 feet and the width of the water fall runs into almost a mile.
• More than 50% of the world's French speaking population lives here on the continent.
• Angola has more Portuguese speakers than Portugal. Africa has a pink lake in Senegal.
• More than 50% of the world's gold and 95% of the world's diamonds come from the mineral rich continent of Africa.
• The world also gets 66% of its chocolate from the African continent.

Major countries of africa

Important Countries of Africa and their capitals

Australia

• Australia, covering an entire continent, holds the distinction of being the only country with such vast landmass. Captain James Cook, an English seaman, discovered Australia in 1770.
• As the smallest continent located entirely in the Southern hemisphere, Australia, along with New Zealand and nearby islands, forms Australasia. The country is divided into six self-governing states and two centrally administered territories.
• The Tropic of Capricorn nearly bisects the continent, earning Australia the moniker "Island continent" due to its surrounded-by-water geography. It is also referred to as Sahul, Australinea, or Meganesia to distinguish the continent from the country itself.
• Positioned entirely south of the Equator, Australia is commonly known as the "country down under." It leads global wool production, with a sheep population 14 times that of its human inhabitants.
• Home to over 500 varieties of Eucalyptus trees, Australia boasts the world's largest coral reef, the Great Barrier Reef, stretching approximately 2000 kilometers.
• Noteworthy structures include the Sydney Harbour Bridge, the world's largest steel arch bridge, and the Sydney Tower Center, the tallest building in the Southern hemisphere.

Physical Features

• Australia's landscape can be categorized into three main divisions: the Western plateau, Central lowlands, and Eastern highlands.
• The Western plateau, covering nearly two-thirds of the continent, is predominantly desert or semi-desert and rich in minerals like gold and iron ore.
• The central lowlands extend from the Gulf of Carpentaria in the North to the Southern shores, with major rivers like the Murray and the Darling flowing through.
• The Eastern highlands form the Great Dividing Range, a long belt of elevated plateaus. Mount Kosciuszko, at 2234 meters, stands as the highest peak in Australia, and the region is the source of many of the country's rivers, including the iconic Great Barrier Reef along the North-East coast.

Climate

• The majority of Australia experiences a dry climate. The Eastern, North-Eastern, and South-Western regions receive heavy rainfall due to winds from the sea.
• The Eastern highlands act as a barrier to rain-bearing winds, resulting in large parts of central and Western Australia experiencing arid, desert-like conditions.
• The Southern coast enjoys a Mediterranean climate, while the Northern part experiences monsoon winds, making it cool and dry in winter and wet in summer.

Forest and Grasslands

• Eucalyptus, commonly known as gum trees, is abundant in Australia, with varieties like Jarrah and Karri valued for their timber.
•  Wattle is another common tree. It is tall and bears golden flowers in summer.
• The tropical grasslands of Australia are found in North. They are called Savannas.
• The temperate grasslands found in the Murray- Darling basin are called Downs. These grasslands are known for pastoral farming.
• The vegetation of semi-arid regions consists of salt bush and mulger plants. Cactus and thorny grass plants are found in more arid parts.

Wildlife

• Many of the animals of Australia are marsupials (pouch like fold of skin near stomach to carry baby).
• Kangaroo is the symbol of Australia which lives on grass and leaves.
• Koala is another marsupial of Australia which resembles teddy bear.
• Dingo, wild dog and Platypus are also found in Australia. Emu, Kookaburra and Lyrebird are some of the birds of Australia.

Crops

• Wheat is the most important food crop of Australia. New South Wales and Western Australia are main wheat growing states.
• Barley, oats and maize are other food crops grown in Australia. Rice is cultivated in irrigated areas.
• Queensland cultivates significant crops such as sugarcane, tobacco, and cotton. In the tropical North, pineapple, banana, and papaya thrive, while the temperate South focuses on growing apples, oranges, and grapes.

Sheep Rearing

• Australia boasts the world's highest sheep population, primarily raised for wool. The prime sheep lands lie between the Murray and Darling rivers. The Merino breed dominates, producing top-quality wool, with large sheep stations managed by laborers known as Jackaroos.

Cattle Rearing

• Queensland and the Northern Territory excel in producing premium beef cattle. The East and Southeastern regions are prominent in dairy farming, benefiting from sufficient rainfall for grass growth.

Minerals

• Australia is a significant producer of gold and possesses extensive reserves of coal, iron ore, bauxite, manganese, and tin. It leads globally in bauxite production and also holds reserves of oil and natural gas.

Industry

• Victoria and New South Wales house the majority of manufacturing industries in Australia. The country manufactures iron, steel, agricultural machinery, motor vehicles, electrical goods, chemicals, paper, ships, machine tools, refined oil, cotton, wooden textiles, sugar, condensed and powdered milk, butter, cheese, and tinned fruits and meat.

Transport

• The Trans-Australian Railway, spanning 4000 km from Sydney to Perth, is the only transcontinental railway. Commonwealth highways, akin to national highways in India, form the major road network. Australia has an efficient air ambulance system, and Sydney serves as the largest city and a vital seaport.

Population

• Australia's population is around 23,401,892, with a density of 2 persons per sq. km. Concentrated mainly in the Eastern coastal lowlands and Southeastern regions, 85% of Australians reside in eight capital cities. The native tribes, Aborigines, originally spoke around 200 languages and dialects.

North America

• The third-largest continent globally, North America spans from Alaska in the North to West Labrador in the Northeast and Panama in the South. It features extensive forests, fertile farmlands, abundant minerals, significant water power resources, and extensive coastal fishing grounds.
• North America encompasses five time zones and boasts every climate type.
• Named after the explorer Amerigo Vespucci, it is also known as the New World.
• The continent houses Lake Superior, the largest freshwater lake globally, and the Mississippi River, the world's third-longest.
• Compared to other continents, North America has the highest average per-person income and the highest average food intake per individual.

Physical Features

• North America has four major physical divisions which are as follows.

The Canadian Shield

• It covers nearly half of Canada in North. Its average height is 300 to 400 metres.
• A large part of it is covered with swamps and lakes like Great Bear, Winnipeg and the Great Lakes (Lake Superior, Lake Michigan, Lake Huron, Lake Erie and Lake Ontario).
• The Southern parts of the shield are low lands of Great Lakes and St Lawrence river.
• St Lawrence river is the busiest inland waterway in North America.
• St Lawrence and the Great Lakes provides the largest inland waterways in the world as they l USA and Canada.
• The shield holds a wealth of valuable mineral resources, including gold, silver, nickel, iron, copper, platinum, radium, cobalt, and uranium.

Appalachian Mountains or Eastern Highlands

• The mountain's height varies from 1000 m in South-Western Pennsylvania to 1800 m in Mount Washington.
• The Hudson River flows through the Appalachian Mountains, connecting to the Great Lakes via the Erie Canal.
• Abundant mineral resources such as coal, copper, and lead are found within this mountain range.

Central Lowlands

• Stretching approximately 2000 km between the Western Cordilleras and Eastern Highlands, the Central Lowlands extend over 6000 km from the Mackenzie River delta to the coastal plain in Texas.
• The Central and Southern parts constitute the river basin of the Missouri-Mississippi rivers, featuring fertile soil and rich agricultural resources.

Western Cordilleras

• The Western Cordilleras, a mountainous region running from North to South along the continent, includes the highest peak, Mt McKinley (6187m) in Alaska.
• Most of North America's rivers originate in the Western Cordilleras, encompassing mountain ranges such as the Rocky Mountains, Coastal Range, and Sierra Nevada.
• The Great Basin, the continent's largest intermontane plateau, is located here, followed by the Colorado Plateau to the south. The Grand Canyon of Colorado, renowned for its beauty, is the largest of its kind globally.
• The Western Cordilleras are rich in coal, lead, zinc, gold, and copper, and feature active volcanoes in Alaska and Mexico. Yellowstone Park houses the famous Old Faithful geyser.
• In summary, the Western Cordilleras serve as a diverse region with significant geological, geographical, and natural resources.

Important Rivers of North America

Important Lakes of North America

Climate:

• North America experiences a diverse climate range, extending from the tropical zone in the South to the frigid zone in the North.
• The Western highlands and Appalachian mountains bring cold winds from the North and warm winds from the South. Summers are generally hot, excluding the Arctic zone and Western Cordilleras.
• The Western coast in the North faces Westerlies, while the South-Eastern coast is influenced by trade winds, both bringing heavy rainfall. However, parts of South-West United States and North-West Mexico remain extremely dry.
• Winters are cold across much of North America, with temperatures significantly below freezing in the Northern and central parts, decreasing from South to North.

Vegetation and Animals:

• The extreme North of the continent, known as the Tundra, experiences a very cold and severe climate, with snow covering the ground for eight to nine months. Mosses, lichens, and grasses are the only vegetation during this period. Polar bears, caribou, musk-ox, and reindeer are the key animals in this region.
• South of the Tundra is the Taiga, a wide belt of coniferous forests stretching from Atlantic to Pacific. Balsam, fir, white and red pines dominate these forests, also found in the Western Cordilleras.
• South-East Canada and North-East United States have coniferous and deciduous forests with trees like beech, birch, maple, and oak.
• Tropical forests thrive in central America, Eastern Mexico, and the West Indies, featuring trees like palm, mahogany, and logwood.
• Grasslands, known as Prairies, are found in the interior plains of North America, known for tall and nutritious grasses.
• The extreme South-West part of the United States and North-Western Mexico features scanty rainfall, with natural vegetation consisting of various cactus plants.
• A Mediterranean climate is present on the West coast of California, with olive, pine, orange, and cork oak trees.

Crops:

• Important cereals grown in North America include maize, wheat, and barley. Cotton, tobacco, soybean, and linseed are also significant crops.
• Nearly half of the world's maize is grown in North America, known as corn. Wheat production is concentrated in the prairie region of Canada and the United States, accounting for about one-fifth of the world's wheat.
• Cotton and tobacco thrive in the Southern parts of the Mississippi river basin, with the United States and Mexico leading in cotton production.
• Along the Gulf Coast, rice and sugarcane are cultivated, while the tropical lowland of central America is famous for banana cultivation.
• North America contributes about one-fourth of the world's total cow's milk production and is a leading producer of meat.
• North America holds the world's largest producer titles for maize, wheat, and soybean.
• Cuba, often referred to as the sugar bowl of the world, is the world's largest sugar exporter among the seven continents and is located in North America.

Forests:

• Coniferous forests dominate extensive areas of Canada, Northern United States, and the Western Cordilleras. 
• These forests serve as a valuable source of softwood, providing essential products like pulp and paper, douglas fir, and white pine (utilized for house-building materials), cellulose, resin, and turpentine. In the temperate regions' southern part, deciduous trees such as pineapple, oak, and beech coexist with coniferous trees. White pine and spruce trees contribute to pulp for newspapers, oak and willow wood for furniture, and maple tree sap for sugar.
• Tropical rainforests thrive in Southern Mexico and Central American countries, yielding high-quality hardwoods like mahogany and logwood.

Minerals:

• North America is a significant producer of petroleum, natural gas, nickel, zinc, asbestos, gold, silver, copper, and iron ore. The Canadian Shield contains deposits of nickel, iron ore, gold, platinum, and copper, with Lake Superior being a leading producer of high-grade iron ore. Ontario hosts the world's largest gold mine. 
• The Appalachian highlands contribute abundant anthracite and high-grade bituminous coal, boasting the world's largest soft coal field. The Gulf Coast and the Atlantic coastal plain are major producers of petroleum and natural gas, with the United States ranking as the second-largest global producer of natural gas. Sulphur, phosphate, and potash are also found in this region. 
• The Western Cordilleras possess extensive deposits of copper, mineral oil, natural gas, coal, and rock phosphate. British Columbia holds the largest global deposits of lead and zinc, while Mexico has been a leading silver producer worldwide for many years.

Transportation:

• The Panama Canal, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, holds significant commercial and strategic importance. In North America, highways are referred to as Freeways or Superways. 
• Navigational rivers like the Mississippi and St. Lawrence, along with the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence combined, create the world's largest and busiest inland waterways. Kennedy Airport in New York is recognized as the busiest international airport globally.

Population:

• The North American population comprises indigenous people (native Indians) and immigrants from various parts of the world. The total population of North America was 366 million in 2019, with a population density of 23 people per square kilometer. Approximately 90% of Canada remains largely uninhabited due to its harsh climate, with the majority of the population concentrated along the narrow Southern fringe.

Major Countries of North America

North American Countries and their Capitals

South America

• South America, the fourth-largest continent in the world, is primarily situated in the Southern hemisphere. The Andes Mountains, with an average height second only to the Himalayas, dominate its landscape. The collective regions of South America, Central America, Mexico, and the West Indies constitute Latin America.
• Bounded by the Caribbean Sea to the North-West and North, the Atlantic Ocean to the North-East, East, and South-East, and the Pacific Ocean to the West, South America is intricately connected to North America through the Isthmus of Panama. Brazil, the largest country in South America, encompasses approximately half of the continent's land area and population. On the contrary, Suriname holds the title of the smallest country with the lowest population in South America.
• South America boasts the world's highest uninterrupted waterfall, Angel Falls, situated in Venezuela. Additionally, it is home to Kaieteur Falls in Guyana, the highest single-drop waterfall globally.

Physical Features

South America's physical features are diverse, categorized as follows:

• The Western Coastal Strip: A narrow strip of lowland along the Pacific with significant variations from North to South.
• The Western Mountains (Andes): Stretching from the Caribbean Sea to the Southern tip, the Andes are the second-highest mountain system globally, characterized as young fold mountains.
• The Central Plains: Lying between the Andes and Eastern highlands, this plain encompasses the basins of Orinoco, Amazon, and the Plata rivers. The Amazon River, the world's largest, rises in the Andes and flows across Brazil, ultimately emptying into the Atlantic Ocean.

The Eastern Highlands:

The Eastern Highlands: Formed by the Guyana and Brazilian highlands along the Eastern coast, featuring the world's highest waterfall, the Angel Falls, located in South-Eastern Venezuela.

Climate

South America experiences a variety of climates:

• Equatorial Climate: The Amazon basin exhibits a hot and wet climate throughout the year.
• Savanna Climate: Beyond the Amazon forests, a Savanna climate prevails with distinct dry and rainy seasons, mainly during the summer.
• Heavy Rainfall: Northern Argentina and Western Paraguay encounter heavy rains during the summer.
• Desert Climate: Parts of Southern Peru and Northern Chile, specifically the Atacama Desert, experience a hot, desert-type climate.
• Mediterranean Climate: Central Chile features a Mediterranean climate with rainy winters and warm, dry summers.
• In Southern Chile, there is oceanic or marine type of climate is found. Rainfall occurs here throughout the year and the climate is cool.
• South of the tropical grasslands of Southern Brazil lies the region of temperate grasslands. This region has warm climate with rain throughout the year (more in summer.)
• On the Eastern side of Andes, desert of Patagonia is found. Its climate is dry because it lies in the rain shadow area of Western mountains.
• There are seven types of climate are found in South America i.e., Equatorial climate, Savanna type of climate, Prairie climate, Tropical climate, Desert climate, Mediterranean climate and Temperate Maritime climate.

Vegetation

The Amazon basin is cloaked in equatorial rainforests locally referred to as Selvas.

•  The Savanna climate region features grasslands known as Llanos in the Orinoco river basin to the North and Campos in central Brazil to the South.
• The lowlands of Northern Argentina and Western Paraguay are adorned with dense forests and grasslands locally known as Gran Chaco.
• Desert-type climates host scrubs, prickly pear, and cactus.
• Mediterranean climates showcase evergreen forests with oak, walnut, chestnut, and fig trees.
• Ocean or Marine climates feature temperate mixed forests where valuable trees like beech and pine thrive. The temperate grasslands in central Argentina are named Pampas.

Forests

•  A significant portion of South America is covered with forests, predominantly tropical rainforests in the Amazon basin.
• These forests house hardwood treasures such as mahogany, with the Amazon basin being the home of the rubber tree.
• Balsa, the lightest wood globally, comes from the Amazon rainforests. Carnauba palm trees in Brazil yield wax used in furniture polish, shoe polish, and candles.
• Cinchona bark, rich in quinine, serves medicinal purposes. Chicle is harvested for chewing gum.
• Yerba, an important tree of the Eastern highlands, has leaves brewed like tea.
• Quebracho, meaning Axe breaker, is a vital hardwood tree in Gran Chaco, yielding tannic acid for leather tanning.
• The forests along the Eastern slopes of the Andes are known as Montana, providing valuable softwood.

Crops

• Only 10% of the soil is suitable for farming, with most fertile land found in Argentina and Uruguay.
• Wheat and maize are crucial crops in South America, with Argentina and Chile producing wheat and Brazil and Argentina being major maize producers (originating in South America).
• Coffee, sugarcane, cocoa, and bananas are significant cash crops, with Brazil, Colombia, and Ecuador leading in coffee production globally. Brazil also excels in cotton cultivation.

Wildlife

• The South American continent is home to around 1500 species of vibrant birds, with the Condor being the largest bird of prey globally.
• Rhea, a flightless bird similar to the ostrich of Africa and emu of Australia, resides in South America.
• Spider monkeys showcase acrobatic skills, owl monkeys are nocturnal lovers, and squirrel monkeys are known for their gentleness.
• Anaconda, an enormous python approximately 10 m long, inhabits South America.
• Puma, a formidable cat family member, stronger than leopards, is found in South America.
• Llamas, surefooted beasts of burden, populate the highlands of the Andes.
• Alpaca, a smaller llama variety, and Guanaco, a wild llama variety, are found on high plateaus and in the Patagonian desert.
• South America contributes to about one-fifth of the world's total fish production, with Peru being a leading country in the fishing industry globally.

Cattle Rearing

• Prominent regions for cattle rearing in South America include the semi-humid areas of Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil.
• In this region, the original grass is substituted with a more valuable variety called Alfalfa.
• Alfalfa, a leguminous plant, not only provides nutrition but also helps maintain soil fertility.
• Sheep rearing is prevalent in Argentina and Chile, with Argentina being a major meat exporter.

Minerals

• South America contributes approximately one-seventh of the world's mineral oil, with significant deposits in Venezuela and the islands of Trinidad and Tobago.
• Much of the oil extraction takes place beneath the lake waters in Maracaibo, Venezuela.
• Brazil hosts one of the world's largest iron ore deposits, while Trinidad has substantial asphalt or coal-tar reserves.
• Chile leads global copper production, and Bolivia ranks as the world's fourth-largest tin producer.
• Rich nitrates, vital for manure and fertilizers, are found in the Atacama deserts of South America, with Chile being the primary producer.
• Guano islands off Peru's coast boast the world's most concentrated single source of natural manure.
• South America holds substantial reserves of bauxite, manganese, silver, and antimony.
•  Surinam and Guyana are major bauxite producers in South America.

Population

• As of 2021, South America's total population stands at 435,375,625, with a population density of 25 persons per sq. km. The region's population is primarily composed of three main racial groups: American Indians, Blacks, and Europeans.
• Mixed-race communities, including Mestizos, Mulattos, and Zambos, are widespread across South America.
• Large uninhabited areas include the Amazon lowlands, Llanos, Gran Chaco, Guyana highlands, Atacama, and Patagonia deserts.
• Portuguese and Spanish are the predominant languages spoken.
• South America is home to various geographical extremes, such as the Andes, the driest non-polar place on Earth (Atacama desert), the largest rainforest (Amazon Rainforest), the highest capital city (La Paz, Bolivia), the highest commercially navigable lake (Lake Titicaca), the Southernmost permanently inhabited community (Puerto Toro, Chile), and the largest salt lake (Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia and Chile).

Major Countries of South America

South America Countries and their Capitals

Europe

• Europe is a peninsula of the Eurasian continent and ranks sixth in area among the seven continents. 
• It is the most densely populated continent in the world. Bounded by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south, it is separated from Asia in the east by the Ural Mountains, Caucasus Mountains, and the Caspian Sea. 
• Iceland, Norway, Sweden, and Denmark collectively form Scandinavia, while Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia are known as the Baltic states. Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg are referred to as the Low Countries, and the Balkan states include Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro), Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Greece, Romania, and Albania. 
• The Vatican City, a small independent state within Rome, serves as the seat of the Pope and headquarters of the Roman Catholic Church. The British Isles encompass the main islands of Ireland (Northern Ireland and the Irish Republic) and Great Britain (Scotland, Wales, and England), along with several smaller islands.

Physical Features:

Europe can be divided into four major physical regions:

The North-Western Highlands:

• Extending from Finland through Sweden, Norway, and the British Isles to Iceland, the northern part of the highland is known as the Fenno-Scandian shield. The rocks in these shields are the oldest in Europe. This area is rich in metallic minerals like iron and copper but lacks fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas. Along the Norwegian coast, the highlands reach into the Atlantic Ocean, forming fjords.

The North European Plain:

• Extending from the Urals in the east to the Atlantic coast in the west, this plain is bounded by the White Sea to the east and the North-Western Highlands to the south. It has long been a significant farming area and is drained by major navigational rivers like the Seine and Rhine. Other important rivers include the Danube, Dnieper, Don, and Volga. The plain is underlain with deposits of coal, oil, and natural gas.

The Central Uplands:

• Encompassing the Meseta in Spain and Portugal, the Massif Central, and Jura Mountains in France, the Black Forest in Germany, and several low ranges in Czech and Slovak republics, two major rivers flow in this region—Rhine to the north and Rhone to the south. The Rhine-Rhone canal connects these two rivers, enabling continental waterway transportation.

The Alpine System:

• Stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Caspian Sea in the east, the Alps are the most important mountain system. Mont Blanc (4807m) is the highest peak located in France. Other significant mountain ranges include Pyrenees, Carpathian, and Caucasus. The highest peak in Europe is Mount Elbrus (5633m) in Caucasus.

Plateaus/Mountain Ranges/Peninsulas:

• Major plateaus in Europe include the Iberian plateau, central plateaus of France, and the Vosages and Black Forest of Germany. Major mountain ranges consist of Cantabrian, Pyrenees, Apennines, Dinaric Alps, Carpathian, Kjolen, and Balkan ranges. Major peninsulas include Jutland, Scandinavian, Iberian, Italian, and Balkan peninsulas.

Important Lakes of Europe

• Constance Lake This lake located in the Alps mountain is the meeting place of Germany Austria and Switzerland. The Rhine river passes through it.
• Ladoga Lake It is a fresh water lake located in Russia.
• It is the largest lake in Europe in terms of area Onega Lake It is a fresh water lake in Russia which is the second largest lake in Europe after Ladoga in terms of area.
• Vattern and Vänern These lakes are located in Sweden.

Major Rivers of Europe Continent

Major Straits of Europe