Italy:

• Italy was also divided into multiple states and kingdoms in the early 19th century, with the Austrian Empire exerting considerable influence in the northern regions of Lombardy and Venetia.
• Nationalist movements, inspired by the ideas of Italian writers and intellectuals like Giuseppe Mazzini, Giuseppe Garibaldi, and Count Camillo di Cavour, sought to unite the Italian states and rid the region of foreign control.
• Similar to Germany, the process of Italian unification, known as the Risorgimento, involved both diplomatic efforts and armed struggles. Key events included the Expedition of the Thousand led by Garibaldi and the role of Cavour in securing French support against Austria.
• The Kingdom of Italy was officially proclaimed in 1861, with Victor Emmanuel II as its first king. However, the process of unification was not fully completed until Rome, then under papal control, was incorporated into the Italian state in 1870.

Both the unification of Germany and Italy were complex processes marked by political manoeuvring, military conflicts, and diplomacy. They were emblematic of the broader 19th-century trend of nation-states coming into existence as people rallied around the concepts of self-determination and shared national identity.

The events in the German states in 1848 were part of the broader European revolutions that swept across the continent during that year. The 1848 Revolutions, often referred to as the "Spring of Nations" or the "Springtime of the Peoples," were a series of uprisings, protests, and political changes that occurred in many European countries.

Here are some key points regarding the 1848 Revolutions in the German states:

1. Democratic Aspirations: The 1848 Revolutions in Germany were driven by democratic and nationalist aspirations. People across the German states, inspired by the ideals of the French Revolution and Enlightenment thinkers, sought political reforms, civil liberties, and national unification. They demanded an end to monarchical rule and the establishment of constitutional and representative governments.
2. Frankfurt Parliament: In the wake of the uprisings, a National Assembly (Vorparlament) was convened in Frankfurt, which later became the Frankfurt Parliament (Frankfurter Nationalversammlung). The assembly's goal was to draft a constitution for a unified Germany, as there was a strong desire for national unification.
3. Conflict with Monarchs: The Frankfurt Parliament faced significant challenges, particularly in dealing with the various German rulers. While the assembly aimed to create a constitutional monarchy, many rulers were resistant to these changes. In some cases, they initially made concessions to appease the revolutionaries but later reversed their decisions, leading to renewed tensions.
4. Prussian Leadership: The Prussian King, Frederick William IV, was initially seen as a potential leader of a united Germany. However, he ultimately rejected the offer of a constitutional monarchy and the "crown from the gutter" that was offered by the Frankfurt Parliament. This decision was a setback for those hoping for a united Germany under Prussian leadership.
5. Repression and Disintegration: As the revolutionary wave subsided and divisions among the German states and within the Frankfurt Parliament became more pronounced, the hopes for a unified, democratic Germany began to unravel. Conservative forces reasserted control, and many of the rights and liberties initially granted during the uprisings were revoked.
6. Legacy: While the 1848 Revolutions did not lead to the immediate creation of a united German nation, they had a lasting impact. They highlighted the desire for constitutional government and national unification. The events of 1848 served as a precursor to the later efforts led by Otto von Bismarck, which ultimately led to the unification of Germany in 1871 under Prussian leadership.

The failure of the 1848 Revolutions did not diminish the aspirations for German unification and democracy. Instead, it demonstrated the challenges and complexities involved in achieving these goals, which would require further developments in the following decades.

Unification of Italy: Mazzini and Garibaldi

The unification of Italy was a complex process that involved gaining independence from Austrian control and uniting the various independent Italian states into a single nation. Key figures in this process were Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi.

Giuseppe Mazzini:

1. Young Italy (1831): Giuseppe Mazzini was a passionate Italian patriot and a revolutionary. In 1831, he founded an organization called "Young Italy" with the aim of unifying Italy and establishing a democratic republic. This organization played a crucial role in mobilizing the Italian people for the cause of unification.
2. Revolutionary Efforts: From 1831 onwards, Young Italy led several attempted revolts against the ruling monarchies in different Italian states. However, these uprisings faced significant challenges and were often suppressed by the authorities.
3. Inspiration for Nationalism: Despite the initial failures, Mazzini's ideas and efforts inspired a sense of nationalism among the Italian people. His vision of a united Italy under a liberal and democratic government continued to resonate.

Giuseppe Garibaldi:

1. Redshirts and Expedition of the Thousand: Giuseppe Garibaldi was another prominent figure in the Italian unification movement. He was a skilled military leader and a fervent nationalist.
2. Redshirts: Garibaldi and his followers, known as the "Redshirts," were instrumental in various military campaigns aimed at liberating different Italian regions from foreign control.
3. Expedition of the Thousand (1860): One of Garibaldi's most famous exploits was the "Expedition of the Thousand." In 1860, he led a force of a thousand volunteers to conquer the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in southern Italy. This campaign was highly successful and greatly contributed to the cause of unification.
4. Role in Unification: Garibaldi's military successes, along with strategic political manoeuvring by figures like Count Cavour, played a crucial role in achieving Italian unification.

The Two-Step Process:

1. Gaining Independence from Austria: The first step in Italian unification involved breaking free from Austrian dominance. This was achieved through a combination of military conflicts and diplomatic efforts, including the Italian Wars of Independence.
2. Uniting Independent States: Once independence was gained, efforts were made to unite the various independent Italian states into a single nation. This was accomplished through the skilled political manoeuvring of figures like Count Cavour and the military campaigns led by Garibaldi.

Result: The culmination of these efforts was the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861, with Victor Emmanuel II as its king. The new kingdom included much of the Italian peninsula, although Rome and Venice were incorporated later.

The unification of Italy marked a significant milestone in European history, and figures like Mazzini and Garibaldi played vital roles in inspiring and leading the movement for Italian independence and unity.