• The mining sector is an important segment of the Indian economy. Since independence, there has been a pronounced growth in mineral production both in terms of quantity and value.

Introduction

• A mineral is a naturally occurring substance with a specific chemical composition and distinct physical properties.
• Minerals exhibit uneven distribution across Earth's surface, concentrating in specific areas or rock formations. They form through natural processes, devoid of human intervention, and can be distinguished by physical properties like color, density, hardness, and chemical characteristics such as solubility.
• Minerals play a crucial role as the foundational materials for the social and economic development of a country. India, rich in diverse minerals, has concentrated deposits in specific regions.
• The abundant and easily accessible mineral reserves have fostered the growth and development of India's mining sector.

Classification Resources of Mineral

• On the basis of chemical and physical properties. minerals are classified into two major mineral resources; metallic and non-metallic
• Metallic minerals are those that contain metal in their crude form, characterized by hardness, heat and electricity conductivity, and a characteristic luster. Examples of metallic minerals include iron ore, bauxite, and manganese ore, further categorized into ferrous and non-ferrous minerals.
• Ferrous Metallic Minerals: Comprising iron-based minerals such as iron ore, manganese, chromium, nickel, cobalt, and tungsten.
• Non-Ferrous Metallic Minerals: Lacking significant amounts of iron, examples include copper, gold, zinc, silver, platinum, and aluminum.
• Non-metallic minerals encompass both organic and inorganic types. Organic minerals consist of petroleum, coal, and natural gas, while inorganic minerals include mica and limestone.

The Mineral Belt of India

• In India, mineral belts play a crucial role in resource distribution. The Chhota Nagpur plateau region holds more than 90% of the country's mineral wealth, with significant coal reserves in the Gondwana troughs. 
• Madhya Pradesh boasts reserves of manganese-ores, coal, limestone, and bauxite.
• Tamil Nadu holds workable deposits of lignite, manganese, mica, and limestone, while Karnataka is a major producer of gold, iron, porcelain clays, and chrome ores. Andhra Pradesh possesses reserves of inferior-quality coal and mica, while Kerala concentrates heavy mineral sands.
• Rajasthan is rich in copper, silver, lead, zinc, uranium, mica, precious stones, and low-grade coal. Gujarat and Assam contribute to petroleum production, with Gujarat also supplying about 90% of the country's fluorite yield. Additionally, Assam has reserves of lignite, and West Bengal is a significant supplier of coal and iron ore.

Mineral Belts and Their Location

Mineral Distribution in India

Iron-Ore:

• Iron-ore serves as the cornerstone of industrial development, constituting about 80% of the total iron-ore reserves in the country, primarily in the form of haematite. India currently stands as the world's fourth-largest producer of iron ore.
• Extracted from igneous rocks located in Cuddapah and Dharwar, major production regions include Gorumahisani, Suleipat, and Badam Pahar in the Mayurbhanj district of Odisha, the Baramjader group extended across Keonjhar and Sundargarh districts of Odisha, Singhbhum district in Jharkhand, Bailadila range in Bastar district in Chhattisgarh, Sandur hills at Bellary Hospet region, and Bababudan hills in Chikkamagaluru district, Karnataka.

Major Iron Ore Producing  States

Manganese:

• Occurring mainly in the Dharwar system of rocks, manganese is a crucial raw material for the iron and steel industry.
•  Key manganese regions include Keonjhar and Koraput in Odisha, Balaghat and Chhindwara in Madhya Pradesh, Nagpur and Bhandara in Maharashtra, Panchmahal in Gujarat, Visakhapatnam and Srikakulam in Andhra Pradesh, Singhbhum in Jharkhand, and Udaipur and Banswara in Rajasthan.

Major Manganese Producing States

copper

 Copper is alloyable, malleable, and ductile metal. Copper plants in India are

• Chilpi series (Madhya Pradesh)
• Ghatsila (Jharkhand)
• Malanjkhand (Madhya Pradesh)
• Korba (Chhattisgarh)
• Taloja (Maharashtra)
  • The major copper-producing regions are Singhbhum in Jharkhand, Jhunjhunu, Bhilwara, Alwar, and Udaipur in Rajasthan, Balaghat in Madhya Pradesh, Guntur and Nellore districts in Andhra Pradesh.
  • The Khetri mine in Rajasthan has been a major copper-extracting region, since the age of Indus Valley civilization.

Major Copper Producing States

Bauxite

• Aluminium is extracted from the bauxite ore through the Bayer's process.
• The major bauxite extracting regions in India are Ranchi and Palamau in Jharkhand, Surguja, Kabirdham and Bastar in Chhattisgarh, Shahdol and Balaghat in Madhya Pradesh, Kolaba, Thane and Ratnagiri in Maharashtra, Belgaum and Bababudan hills in Karnataka, Palani, Javadi and Shevaroy hill regions in TamilNadu.
• Presently, India is the sixth largest bauxite producer and has the fourth largest bauxite reserves (4%) of the world. Odisha is the largest bauxite producing state in India.

Major Bauxite Producing States

Chromite:

• Chromite, a metal composed of iron and chromium, finds applications in refractive works and chemical industries.
• Odisha dominates chromite production in India, accounting for 90%. Key districts include Keonjhar, Jaipur Dhenkanal, and Cuttack. Other contributing regions encompass Chitradurga and Hassan in Karnataka, Ratnagiri and Bhandara in Maharashtra, Singhbhum in Jharkhand, and Kondapalli in Andhra Pradesh.
• India ranks third globally in chromite production, trailing South Africa and Kazakhstan.

Diamond:

• Diamond, the purest form of carbon and the hardest substance is primarily extracted in Madhya Pradesh. Key diamond mines are situated in Panna and Satna districts.
• Additional diamond mining regions include Raichur and Gulbarga in Karnataka and Anantapur and Krishna Basin in Andhra Pradesh.

Mica:

• Mica, a vital non-metallic mineral formed in igneous and metamorphic rocks, is valued for its insulating properties in the electronics industry.
• Major mica producers are Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, and Rajasthan. India leads global mica production with 60%, with a significant portion dedicated to exports.

Top States for Mica Production:

Gypsum:

• Used in fertilizer, cement, and sulfur production, gypsum is formed in sedimentary rocks. Rajasthan is the largest producer, with 90% of India's production.
• Hanumangarh district in Rajasthan is the primary gypsum-producing region, with additional findings in Bikaner, Jodhpur, Nagpur, Jaisalmer, Doda in Jammu and Kashmir, and Kutch in Gujarat.

Limestone:

• Limestone, associated with calcium carbonate, the double carbonate of calcium and magnesium, or a mixture of the two, is of sedimentary origin.
• Predominantly produced by Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, and Tamil Nadu, limestone is crucial in the cement, iron and steel, and chemical industries.

Gold:

• Gold, a transition metal often occurring in auriferous rocks, is known as an international currency and is extensively used in jewelry manufacturing.
• Mainly found in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, prominent gold fields include the Kolar gold field, Hutti goldfield, and the Ramgiri field. Sands of the Subarnarekha river in Jharkhand also yield gold.

Silver:

• Silver, a precious metal valued alongside gold, is generally found in mixed forms with copper, gold, zinc, etc.
• Rajasthan leads silver production, particularly from Zawar mines in Udaipur. Gujarat and Jharkhand also contribute to India's silver production.

Graphite:

• Graphite, a naturally occurring crystalline form of carbon, is found in metamorphic and igneous rocks.
• Also known as plumbago or black lead, graphite is utilized in pencils, lubricants, polishes, arc lamps, and as a moderator in atomic reactors.
• Major graphite reserves are located in Arunachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Tamil Nadu, and Odisha.

Zinc:

• Zinc, a mixed ore containing lead and zinc, is found in veins associated with galena, chalcopyrites, iron pyrites, and sulfide areas.
• Used for alloying, manufacturing galvanized steel for rust resistance, dry batteries, electrodes, textiles, and the rubber industry.
• Rajasthan holds the largest zinc reserves in India, with production concentrated in regions like Bhilwara, Udaipur, and Rajsamand.

Lead:

• Lead is primarily obtained from galena ore and is not found in free form, mainly located in Precambrian and Vindhyan rocks.
• Zawar, a township in Rajasthan created by Hindustan Zinc Limited, is a significant lead-producing region. Additionally found in Durg Raipur and Bastar in Chhattisgarh.

Uranium:

• Uranium in India is found in Dharwar and Archean series rocks, pegmatite, monazite sands (largest source), and cheralite.
• India produces about 2% of the world's uranium, with the Jadugada region in East Singhbhum district, Jharkhand, being the most important mining area. Other regions include Nellore in Andhra Pradesh and Jaipur in Rajasthan.
• The newly discovered Tummalapalle uranium in Andhra Pradesh is considered one of the world's largest uranium reserves.

Thorium:

• India possesses the largest deposits of thorium reserves globally, followed by Brazil, Australia, and the USA.
• Extracted from monazite sand formed by the disintegration of Precambrian rocks, these monazite extracts are mainly found in the coastal region of Kerala.
• With proper technology development, thorium deposits can fulfill India's power requirements permanently.

Conservation of Mineral Resources:

• Mineral resources are depleting rapidly due to the increasing population and demands, being limited and irreplaceable.
• Conservation methods include strategic and long-term utilization, recycling through scrap metals, improving technology for cost-effective use of poor-grade ores, promoting non-conventional energy sources as substitutes, and training for efficient mineral conservation.

Mines and Minerals (Regulation and Development) Act (1957):

• Enacted by the Indian Parliament, this act regulates the mining sector in India, excluding minor minerals and atomic minerals.
• The act, amended in 2015 and 2016, forms the basic framework for mining regulation in the country.
• It outlines the conditions for obtaining a mining license in India. The extraction of minor minerals falls under the jurisdiction of State Governments, and river sand is considered one such minor mineral. Prior permission from the Ministry of Environment and Forests is required for mining and prospecting on forest land. The Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 2015, amended this act.

The Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Amendment Act, 2015

• The Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Amendment Act, 2015, aimed to introduce transparency in the mining license allocation process through auctions. This amendment proposed an auction-based system for the allocation of mining licenses. 
• A fixed percentage of the mine's revenue would be allocated to the development of the surrounding area, forming a District Mineral Foundation. State Governments would set the rates, in addition to royalty.
•  The amendment also established the National Mineral Exploration Trust to explore and promote non-coal minerals. The validity of licenses was extended to 50 years, with no renewals but only re-auction.

The National Mineral Policy, 2019

• The National Mineral Policy, 2019, introduced measures to boost the mining sector, such as the Right of First Refusal for RP/PL holders, encouragement of private sector exploration, and support for mergers and acquisitions in the mining industry. 
• It proposed creating dedicated mineral corridors, granting industry status to mining activities, and promoting long-term import-export policies for better planning. 
• The policy aimed to rationalize reserved areas given to PSUs through auctions, harmonize taxes and royalties with global benchmarks, and enhance private sector participation.

The Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Amendment Bill, 2021

• The Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Amendment Bill, 2021, presented in Lok Sabha on March 15, 2021, proposed amendments to the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957. 
• Key provisions include the removal of restrictions on the end-use of minerals, allowing captive mines to sell up to 50% of their annual production in the open market, and the central government's authority to conduct auctions in specific cases. 
• Additionally, the bill outlined the transfer of statutory clearances to new lessees for a two-year period after the expiry of a mining lease.

Prelims Facts

• Which is known as the storehouse of Indian minerals.

-Chota Nagpur Plateau [MPPSC (Pre) 2021

• Which minerals are only found in Madhya Pradesh?

- Diamond (MPPSC (Pre) 2021)

• Koderma is famous for which mineral in India?

-Mica (UKPSC (Pre) 2022)

• Which state is the highest producer of Tin in India?

Chhattisgarh [WBCS (Pre) 2022)

•  Monazite is a source of rare Earth minerals, which can only be processed by the Indian Government, the mineral is

-Thorium [UPPSC (Pre) 2022]

• The two Indian States, most richly endowed with iron- ore are

-Madhya Pradesh and Odisha [BPSC (Pre) 2015)

• Which mineral is found in the Nathra-Ki-Pal area of Rajasthan?

- Iron ore [RAS/RTS (Pre) 2008)

•  Bailadila mines are related to which mineral?

-Iron ore [UPPSC (Pre) 2017)

• Out of the various types of iron ore, a reserve of which type is largest in India?

-Haematite (CGPSC (Pre) 2017]

• Rajasthan has near monopoly of

- Zinc (UPPSC (Mains) 2013]

• Which industry uses bauxite as a principal raw material?

- Aluminium (CGPSC (Pre) 2018]

• Khetri located in Jhunjhunu district of Rajasthan is famous for

Copper (CGPSC (Pre) 2016, BPSC (Pre) 2017

•  Which state has main deposit of tin-ore reserves?

-Chhattisgarh (UPPSC (Pre) 2014, 2015)

• In which district of Chhattisgarh, Bauxite ore is available? As per Indian Government notification common major minerals are

-Kondagaon (CGPSC (Pre) 2019)

• Chromite, Kyanite, Sillimanite, lignite, Coal, Uranium, Iron-ore and

Gold [IAS (Pre) 2020

• The Leading producer of manganese in India is

-Madhya Pradesh (UPPSC (Mains) 2008, UPPSC (Pre) 2012

• India leads in production in the world of which mineral?

- Mica [BPSC (Pre) 2018]

• Which State is the main gypsum producing state in India?

-Rajasthan (CGPSC (Pre) 2013)

• In which part of India, the largest reserve of mineral resources found?

- South East (CGPSC (Pre) 2011)

• Which state of India has the largest reserve of Copper?

- Rajasthan [UPPSC (Pre) 2011]

• The leading producer of manganese in India is

- Madhya Pradesh (UPPSC (Pre) 2012]

• The Korba Coalfield is located in

Chhattisgarh [BPSC (Pre) 2000)

• The oldest oil field in India is

- Digboi (Assam) (BPSC (Pre) 2015]

• Tatipaka Oil Refinery is located in the state of

Andhra Pradesh (UPPSC (Pre) 2016]

• Which state of India is a leading producer of solar energy?

- Karnataka (BPSC (Pre) 2020)

• In Uttar Pradesh Coal deposits are found in

- Singrauli Region [UPPSC (Pre) 2017

• Where is Mundra Thermal Power Station located?

- Gujarat (IAS (Pre) 2023

• Name the state where Mijia Thermal Power Station is located.

- West Bengal [IAS (Pre) 2023)

Self Check

1. Non-metallic mineral is

MPPSC (Pre) 2021

(a) marble

(b manganese

(c) silver

(d) lead

2. Which is known as the Storehouse of India Minerals?

MPPSC (Pre) 2021

(a) Chhota Nagpur plateau

(b) Bundelkhand plateau

(c) Malwa plateau

(d) Baghelkhand plateau

3. In India, which of the following minerals are officially designated as major minerals?

IAS (Pre) 2020

1. Bentonite
2. Chromite
3. Sillimanite
4. Kyanite

Codes

(a) 1 and 2

(b) Only 4

(c) 1 and 3

(d) 2, 3 and 4

4. Consider the following statements

Statement I India, despite having uranium deposits, depends on coal for most of its electricity production.

Statement II Uranium, enriched to the extent of at least 60% is required for the production of electricity.

Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

(a) Both Statement I and Statement II are correct and Statement II is the correct explanation for Statement I

(b) Both Statement I and Statement II are correct and Statement II is not the correct explanation for Statement I

(c) Statement I is correct but Statement Il is incorrect

(d) Statement I is incorrect but Statement Il is correct

5. Which one of the following statements is true?

(a) Odisha is the largest producer of chromite in India.

(b) Karnataka is the largest producer of silver in India.

(c) Andhra Pradesh has the largest reserve of bauxite in India.

(d) Odisha has the largest reserve of manganese in India.

6. Which among the following pair (s) is/are correctly matched?

(a) Mica                           Talcher

(b) Manganese                Bailadila

(c) Iron                             Koderma

(d) Bauxite                       Lohardaga

7. In which one of the following minerals, India leads in production in the world?

BPSC (Pre) 2018

(a) Mica sheet

(b) Copper

(c) Gypsum

(d) Iron-ore

8. Match List I with List Il and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists.

MPPSC (Pre) 2019

Codes

1. a) 1 2 3 4
2. b) 1 4 3 2
3. c) 3 4 1 2
4. d) 3 2 4 1

9. Koderma is famous for which mineral?

(a) Iron-ore

(b) Mica 

(c) Gypsum

(d) Bauxite

10. Which of the following minerals is only found in Madhya Pradesh?

MPPSC (Pre) 2021

(a) Iron

(b) Mica

(c) Diamond

(d) Copper

11. Consider the following pairs in the context of the mineral resources of India.

IAS (Pre) 2010

           Minerals                                    90% natural reserves

1. Copper                                             Jharkhand
2. Nickel                                                Odisha
3. Tungsten                                              Kerala

Which of the following pairs) is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2

(b) Only 2

(c) 1 and 3

(d) All of these

12. Two leading producers of bauxite in India are

(a) Jharkhand and Gujarat

(b) Gujarat and Odisha

(c) Odisha and Maharashtra

(d) Odisha and Jharkhand

13. Which of the following industries uses bauxite as a principal raw material?

UPPSC (Pre) 1997, CGPSC (Pre) 2018

(a) Aluminium

(b) Cement

(c) Fertiliser

(d) Ferro-manganese

14. In which of the following districts in India, the largest mica belt is found?

(a) Balaghat and Chhindwada

(b) Udaipur, Ajmer and Alwar

(c) Hazaribagh, Gaya and Munger

(d) Salem and Dharampuri.

15. Khetri is famous for CGPSC (Pre) 2016, BPSC (Pre) 2017

(a) iron-ore

(b) coal

(c) manganese 

(d) copper

16. Bailadila mines are related to which mineral?

(a) Iron-ore

(b) Coal

(c) Manganese-ore

(d) Mica

17. Which of the following states is the highest producer of tin in India?

WBCS (Pre) 2021

(a) Rajasthan

(b) Odisha

(c) Jharkhand

(d) Chhattisgarh

18. Which of the following statements is correct with reference to India?

UPPSC (Pre) 2022

1. Monazite is a source of rare Earth.
2. Monazite contains thorium.
3. Monazite occurs naturally in the entire Indian coastal sands in India.
4. In India, government bodies only can process or export monazite.

Codes

(a) 1, 2 and 3

(b) 1,2 and 4

(c) 3 and 4

(d) All of these

19. The two Indian states, most richly endowed with iron ore, areBPSC (Pre) 2015

(a) Bihar and West Bengal

(b) Madhya Pradesh and Odisha

(c) Bihar and Odisha

(d) Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal

Know Right Answer

1 (a)

2 (a)

3 (d)

4 (c)

5 (a)

6 (d)

7 (a)

8 (c)

9 (b)

10 (c)

11 (b)

12 (d)

13 (a)

14 (c)

15 (d)

16 (a)

17 (d)

18 (b)

19 (b)