• In the third and second century BC, people started moving towards the valleys of Indus, gradually they settled there and they evolved a civilisation called Indus Valley Civilisation. The name 'India' is derived from the river Indus, for India means the country of the Indus.

Discovery of the Indus Valley Civilization

• Archaeological excavations conducted in the early decades of the 20th century unveiled an extensive civilization that thrived in the Indian subcontinent.
• The Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan culture, was unearthed in 1921 at the modern site of Harappa in West Punjab, Pakistan. This civilization spanned regions including Punjab, Haryana, Sindh, Baluchistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and certain areas of Uttar Pradesh.
• Among the three contemporary civilizations—namely, the Egyptian Civilization (Egypt) in the Nile Valley, the Mesopotamian Civilization (Iraq) in the Tigris-Euphrates Valley, and the Hwang-Ho Civilization (China) in the Hwang-Ho Valley—the Indus Valley Civilization stood as the largest.
• Most settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization were situated in the Valley of the Saraswati river system, now extinct. The river Saraswati was identified as Ghaggar in Punjab and Chakra in the Balochistan region.
• The Harappan Civilization is dated between 2600 and 1900 BC and derives its name from Harappa, the initial site where this culture was uncovered.

Major Developments in Harappan Archaeology

Different Phases of Harappan Culture

Various Theories on the Origin of the Harappan Civilization

• Ernest JH Mackay proposed the theory that the "Migration of people from Sumerian regions may have led to the formation of the Harappan Civilization."
• Sir Mortimer Wheeler suggested that the "Harappan Civilization may have originated as the sudden offspring of the Mesopotamian Civilization, known as the land of the twin rivers."
• DH Gordon theorized that the "Indus Valley Civilization emerged as a result of migration from West Asia."
• Amalananda Ghosh put forth the idea that "The pre-Harappan culture of Kalibangan, known as the Sothi culture, developed into the Harappan Civilization."
• Mohammad Rafique Mughal proposed that the "Harappan Civilization was completely indigenous in character but widely inspired and influenced by Sumerian and Mesopotamian cultures."

Origin Periods Given by Archaeologists

Geographical Extent

• The Indus or the Harappan culture is older than the Chalcolithic cultures, but it is far more developed than these cultures.
•  It arose in the North-Western part of the Indian subcontinent.
•  Many sites in Sindh formed the Central Zone of the pre-Harappan culture.
• The Central Zone of the mature Harappan culture lay in Sindh and Punjab, mainly in the Indus Valley. From here, it extended Southwards and Eastwards
• The area formed a triangle and accounted for about 12,99,000 sq km, nearly 1500, Harappan sites are known as so far in the subcontinent.

Important Sites of the Indus Valley Civilization

Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan)

• Discovered in 1921 on the river Ravi, Harappa was the first excavated site of the Indus Valley Civilization under the supervision of Daya Ram Sahni. The civilization was initially named Harappan after this site.
• The extensive mounds at Harappa were first observed by Charles Masson in 1826 and later visited by Alexander Cunningham in 1853 and 1873. Notable features include six granaries located outside the citadel and barracks or rows of single-roomed quarters just below the citadel walls.
• Two distinct burial practices, R-37-type and H-type cemeteries, were identified. According to a recent Archaeological Survey of India report, Bhirrana in Haryana is considered the oldest Harappan site in the Indian subcontinent.
•  Various artifacts, such as a stone symbol of lingam and yoni, a seal depicting a virgin goddess, wheat and barley in a wooden mortar, a copper scale and mirror, a vanity box, dice, a bronze sculpture of a dog chasing a deer, and red sandstone torsos of a nude male and dancing female, provide insights into the culture, including traces of Jainism.

Mohenjodaro (Sindh, Pakistan)

• Discovered by Rakhal Das Banerji in 1922 on the river Indus, Mohenjodaro is one of the largest sites. In the Sindhi language, Mohenjodaro translates to "mound of the dead."
• Notable structures include an oblong multi-pillared assembly hall and a large rectangular building assumed to serve administrative purposes. The Great Bath, a crucial public space, features steps leading to the surface and changing rooms with inlets and outlets for water drainage. The bath measures 39 feet in length, 23 feet in breadth, and 8 feet in depth.

•  Artifacts found at Mohenjodaro include the Pashupati seal, a bronze image of a dancing girl, three cylindrical seals, a steatite image of a bearded man, clay figures of Mother Goddess, dice, an idol of a yogi, a granary, and a unicorn.

Dholavira (Kutch district, Gujarat, India)

• Dholavira, situated in the Khadir belt of Kutch district, Gujarat, is renowned for the discovery of the world's oldest signboard, the Vabni Dholavira signboard, in 1968 by archaeologist Jagat Pati Joshi.
• The site is known for its advanced water harvesting and management system, featuring a series of dams and interconnected reservoirs. In 2021, UNESCO declared Dholavira a World Heritage Site.

Important Sites of Indus Valley Civilisation

Major Characteristics of Harappan sites

Major Characteristics of Harappan sites are as follows:

Town Planning and Structure:

• Town planning exhibited non-uniformity, but a common feature was the use of a grid system, with streets intersecting at right angles, creating large rectangular blocks.
• Cities were divided into two parts: the upper part or citadel and the lower town.
• Remarkably developed and well-organized urbanization stands out as a unique feature of the Indus Valley Civilisation.
• Houses, often multi-storeyed, typically had side entrances, and main streets lacked windows.
• The predominant use of burnt bricks was notable, with a complete absence of stone buildings, and round pillars were absent as well. Kalibangan in the southern part featured granaries.

Drainage System:

• The drainage system was impressive, with nearly every house, big or small, having its own courtyard and bathroom.
• Water from houses flowed into the streets, which were equipped with drains.
• An underground drainage system interconnected all houses to street drains. These drains were constructed using mortar, lime, and gypsum, covered with either brick or stone slabs, and equipped with manholes. This indicates a sophisticated understanding of health and sanitation.
• Drains were constructed using burnt bricks, and at Banawali, evidence of remains of streets and drains was found.

Social and Political Life:

• The Indus Valley Civilisation exhibited a highly developed urban way of life, primarily composed of a middle-class urban population. Various social classes, including priests, merchants, craftsmen, peasants, and laborers, were present.
• Men typically wore two cotton garments, an upper and a lower garment, with occasional use of wool.
• Different types of necklaces and commonly used bracelets were discovered.
• A vanity case found at Harappa indicated the artistic skill of Harappan women in wall painting. The absence of a central authority contributed to a lack of uniform culture, and there is no clear evidence of an organized force or standing army.
• Unlike cities in lower Mesopotamia, priests did not rule Harappa; it was possibly ruled by a class of merchants.

Religious Life:

• Evidence from Harappan seals and terracotta figurines suggests that Proto-Shiva was an important deity, depicted sitting in a yogic posture.
• Fire worship was prevalent in some Harappan sites (Kalibangan and Lothal) but absent in Harappa and Mohenjodaro.
• Ritual bathing, evidenced at Mohenjodaro, might have been absent in Harappa, showcasing diversity in religious beliefs and practices.
• A terracotta figure representing Mother Goddess, with a plant growing out of the embryo, was a chief female deity. Numerous symbols of phallus (lingam) and female sex organs (yoni) made of stone indicate the prevalence of lingam and yoni worship.
• Worship extended to trees (peepal), animals (bull), birds (dove, pigeon), and stones, although no temples were found despite the practice of idolatry.

Burial Practices:

• Disposal of the dead was a significant religious activity, with bodies generally placed in a North-South orientation.
• Some graves contained ornaments like shell bangles, necklaces, earrings, and items such as copper mirrors, pearl shells, antimony sticks, and earthen pots.

Unique burial practices

Economic Life:

• The Harappan economy was based on irrigated surplus agriculture, cattle rearing, proficiency in various crafts, and brisk trade (both internal and external).
• Capital cities were Harappa and Mohenjodaro, while port cities included Sutkagendor, Dholavira, Lothal, and Alhadino.

Agriculture 

• Agriculture was the predominant occupation, with fertile soil due to river inundation and flooding. Seeds were sown in November, and the harvest of wheat and barley occurred in April. Wooden plowshares and stone sickles were used in agricultural practices.
• Harvesting practices in Baluchistan included the creation of Gabarbands or Nalas, enclosed by dams for water storage.
•  The region cultivated a variety of crops, such as wheat, barley, dates, peas, sesamum, mustard, millet, ragi, bajra, and jowar.
• Rice husks were discovered at Lothal and Rangpur. The people of the Indus Valley were pioneers in cotton production, referred to as Sindon by the Greeks. Fragments of woven cotton cloth were unearthed at Mohenjodaro, marking their early use of cotton.
• Evidence of indigo, well irrigation (Aldinho), dams, and irrigation canals (Dholavira and Shortugai) existed, but sugarcane was not known to the Indus people.

Domestication of animals

• In terms of domestication of animals, the Indus Valley inhabitants practiced animal rearing, domesticating buffaloes, sheep, oxen, asses, goats, pigs, elephants, dogs, and cats. Camel bones were found at Kalibangan. 
• They engaged in hunting wild animals like antelope, boar, deer, gharial, and fish. While they were unfamiliar with horses and lions, a horse jawbone was discovered at Surkotada in Gujarat.

Trade

• Trade at Harappan sites was based on a barter system, supported by granaries, seals, a uniform script, and regulated weights and measures. 
• They participated in both inter-regional and foreign trade, as indicated by Sumerian texts referencing trade relations with Meluha (the ancient name for the Indus region). 
• Two intermediate trading stations, Dilmun (Bahrain) and Makan (Makran coast), were mentioned. Transportation involved the use of boats and bullock carts. Weights and measures, typically cubical and made of materials like limestone and steatite, were found in multiples of 16. 
• Linear systems of measurement were evident, with trade connections extending to Shortughal and Mundigak in Afghanistan, Altyn Depe and Namazga in Turkmenistan, and Tepe Yahya and Shahri-i-Sokhta in Iran. The use of metal money was not prevalent in their economic transactions.

Major Imports by the Harappans

Art and Architecture

•  The Harappans were utilitarians although not completely devoid of artistic sense.
•  Their most notable artistic achievement was their seal engraving. The major artistic work of the Harappans were given below

Harappan Pottery

• Harappan pottery is bright or dark red and is uniformly sturdy and well baked. The script is also engraved on it. It is chiefly wheel-made and consists of both plain and painted ware, the plain variety being more common.
• Harappan people used different types of pottery such as glazed, polychrome, incised perforated and knobbed. The glazed Harappan pottery is the earliest example of its kind in the ancient world.
• On the whole, Harappan pottery was highly ale utilitarian in character, though the painted designs on some pieces show a remarkable artistic touch. la superbes grob

Harappan Seals

• Typically crafted from steatite, a soft stone.
• The unique technique of cutting and polishing these seals with a white lustre was an innovative skill developed by the Harappans.

Pashupati Seal

• Discovered at Mohenjodaro, commonly referred to as Proto Shiva. Made of steatite, with dimensions of 3.4 cm in height, 3.4 cm in length, and 1.4 cm in width.
• This rare seal depicts a seated figure in a yogic posture, with bent legs, outstretched arms, and hands resting on the knees. The head is crowned with a pair of horns.
• Surrounding the yogi are various animals, including an elephant, tiger, rhinoceros, man, and buffalo. Beneath the seal, there is a pair of goats/reindeer/deer.
• Provides detailed insights into prevalent religious practices and rituals.
• Majority of Seals Many seals feature an engraved animal along with a short inscription.
• The HA Unicorn is the most frequently represented animal on the seals.
• The famous Bull seal was unearthed at Mohenjodaro.
• Seals can be categorized into square types with a carved animal and inscription, and rectangular types with inscription only.
• A steatite image of a bearded man was excavated from Mohenjodaro.
• Over 2000 seals have been recovered from various Harappan sites.
• Indus Valley seals have been discovered in Mesopotamian towns like Ur, Kis, Susa, and Logas.

Tools and Devices

• Harappans employed tools made of copper, bronze, and stone, exhibiting a remarkable consistency in both design and production techniques.

Copper and Bronze tools used by Indus Valley People

• The basic tools types were the flat axe, chisels, knives, spearheads and arrowheads for the copper and bronze implements.
• In the later stages of the civilization, they were also using daggers and knives.
•  They were familiar with Hooks for fishing with the techniques of casting bronze and copper. Stone tools were also in common use.
• They were produced on a large scale in factory sites like Sukkur in Sindh and then sent to various urban centers. This shows the uniformity in the tool types.

Harappan Beads

• Harappan individuals adorned themselves with exquisite beads crafted from precious and semi-precious stones like agate, turquoise, carnelian, and steatite.
• The processes involved in creating these beads are evident from the findings of a workshop in Chanhudaro.
• Steatite was the most common material for bead production, although gold and silver beads have also been discovered.
• Barrel-shaped beads with a trefoil pattern are distinctive features associated with Harappan culture, and carnelian beads are frequently found.
• In Mohenjodaro, a jewelry hoard, including gold beads, fillets, and other ornaments, was uncovered. Additionally, small silver dishes were also among the discoveries.

Script and Language

• The earliest specimen of the Harappan script was discovered in 1853.
• The script and language remain undeciphered and are pictographic in nature, with the fish symbol being the most frequently represented. There are approximately 250 to 400 pictographs.
• The overlapping of the letters indicates that it was written from right to left in the first line and then left to right in the second line, a style known as Boustrophedon.
• A signboard inscription bearing 10 pictographs has been unearthed from Dholavira in Gujarat.

Terracotta Figurines

• Fire-baked clay was utilized for creating toys, objects of worship, animals (monkeys, dogs, sheep, cattle, humped and humpless bulls), and both male and female figurines.
• Figurine models of boats have been discovered in Mohenjodaro and Lothal.

Decline of Harappan Culture

• The Harappan culture thrived until approximately 1800 BC, after which it started to decline. 
• Many mature Harappan sites, including those in regions like Cholistan, were abandoned by 1800 BC. Populations expanded into new settlements in Gujarat, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh.
• Various theories regarding the decline have been proposed by different scholars.

 Some of them are as follows;

• According to British archaeologist Mortimer Wheeler, the Aryan people abruptly overtook and annexed the Indus Valley Civilization, with evidence of unburied bodies in the prime area of the Mohenjodaro archaeological site.

• Hugh Trevor Lambriek, in 1967, suggested that the eastward migration of the Indus River led to repeated floods, resulting in the loss of agricultural produce. 
• This theory proposes that the new Ghaggar-Hakra waterways became the center of the Indus Civilization, causing a significant migration of artisans and tradesmen towards Saurashtra and Haryana in the early 1900 BC.

The decline of Indus Valley Civilisation: Different Views

Prelims Facts

• Which date was assigned to the Indus Valley Civilisation by Sir John Marshall?

- 3250-2750 [Tripura PSC (Pre) 2011

• The geographic space covered extensively by Harappan Civilisation in South Asia was

- Punjab, Sindh, North West Frontier and Kashmir [BPSC (Pre) 2011)

• Two Indians associated with the discovery of Indus Valley Civilisation are

- Rakhal Das Banerjee and Daya Ram Sahni ICGPSC (Pre) 2003]

•  The first archaeologist who excavated Harappa, but could not recognize its significance, was

- A Cunningham [UPPSC (Mains) 2006]

•  Which is the largest building at Harappa?

- Granary [Nagaland PSC (Pre) 2016]

•  What does the term 'Mohenjodaro' mean?

- Mound of the dead [Nagaland PSC (Pre) 2012]

•  Great bath' was found in which site of Indus Valley Civilisation?

- Mohenjodaro [WBCS (Pre) 2013]

•  Which ancient town was well known for its elaborate system of water harvesting and management by building a series of dams and channeling water into connected reservoirs?

- Dholavira [UPPSC (Pre) 2014, IAS (Pre) 2021)

•  Which is the only Harappan city that is divided into three parts?

- Dholavira [CGPSC (Pre) 2015]

• The Harappan site 'Mandi is situated in the state of

- Uttar Pradesh [UPPSC (Pre) 2021]

• Which type of excavations was found from the Harappan site of Sonauli?

- Human burials [UPPSC (Pre) 2004]

• Who discovered the Indus valley of 'Kot Diji?

- FA Khan, GS Ghuriye (WBCS (Pre) 2022

•  The city of Harappa was discovered by whom?

- Daya Ram Sahni [WBCS (Pre) 2022

• Harappan people carried the practice of trade with

- Sumer [WBCS (Pre) 2010]

• The animal which is not represented on the seals of terracotta art of Harappan culture is

- Cow |IAS (Pre) 2001,UPPSC (Pre) 2007]

• Which soft stone was used to make the Seals in Sindhu Civilisation?

- Steatite IMPSC (Pre) 2017

•  According to the he report of IIT Kharagpur study group, the Indus Valley Civilisation declined due to the continuous rainfall for how many years?

- 900 years (BPSC (Pre) 2018)

• The shape of tree found in the seals from Harappan

Civilisation depicts which tree?

- Peepal IMPPSC (Pre) 2022]

• Which site yielded the evidence of double burial?

- Lothal [UPPSC (Mains) 2016]

• Who explored the city of Kalibangan?

- Luigi Pio Tessitori [WBCS (Pre) 2022]

• The city of Mohenjodaro was explored by whom?

- Rakhal Das Bandyopadhyay |WBCS (Pre) 2022].

• The statue of the 'Dancing girl' was found at which Harappan site?

- Mohenjodaro IUPPSC (Mains) 2017]

• Figure of boats are found in which Harappan sites?

- Mohenjodaro and Lothal [UPPSC (Pre) 2022]

Self Check

1. The Harappan Civilisation covered an extensive area of the present South Asia. The geographic space covered by this civilisation included

BPSC (Pre) 2011

(a) Kashmir, Punjab, Sindh and North-Eastern Frontier.

(b) Punjab, Sindh, North-Western Frontier and Kashmir.

(c) Punjab, Sindh and a part of North-Western Frontier.

(d) Punjab, Sindh and a part of North-Western Frontier, Kathiawar and a part of Ganga-Yamuna Doab.

2. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer by using the codes given below the lists.

Codes

1. a) 1 2 3 4
2. b) 2 3 4 1
3. c) 4 3 21 
4. d) 3 4 1 2

3. Eastern boundary of the Harappa culture is indicated by which of the following? UPPSC (Pre) 2023

(a) Manda

(b) Rakhigarhi

(c) Alamgirpur

(d) Harappa

4. Which of the following pairs is not correct with regard to the origin of Harappan Civilisation?

RAS/RTS (Pre) 2015

(a) EJH Mackay -                     Migration of people from Sumer.

(b) Mortimer Wheeler               Migration of idea of civilisation from West Asia.                                 

(c) Amalananda Ghose            Pre-Harappan culture matured to make Harappan Civilisation.

(d) M Rafique Mughal              Harappan Civilisation was inspired by Mesopotamian Civilisation.

5. The two major cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation revealing uniform urban planning were

Tripura PSC (Pre) 2011

(a) Mohenjodaro and Chanhudaro

(b) Mohenjodaro and Lothal

(c) Mohenjodaro and Dholavira

(d) Mohenjodaro and Harappa

6. From where the evidence of the rock-cut architecture was found with reference to the Harappan Civilisation?

UPPSC (Pre) 2006

(a) Kalibangan

(b) Dholavira

(c) Kot Diji

(d) Amri

7. Which one of the following ancient towns is well-known for its elaborate system of water harvesting and management by building a series of dams and channelising water into connected reservoirs?

UPPSC (Pre) 2014, IAS (Pre) 2021

(a) Dholavira

(b) Kalibangan

(c) Rakhigarhi

(d) Ropar

8. Which among the following Harappan sites terracotta of plough was found?

BPSC (Pre) 2018

(a) Dholavira

(b) Banawali

(c) Kalibangan

(d) Lothal

9. Which among the following Harappan sites is not located in Gujarat?

WBCS (Pre) 2018

(a) Surkotada 

(b) Lothal 

(c) Dholavira 

(d) Banawali

10. Which one of the following is not a Harappan site?

IAS (Pre) 2019

(a) Chanhudaro 

(b) Kot Diji 

(c) Sohgaura 

(d) Desalpur

11. Which among the following is not related to Indus

Valley Civilisation?

MPPSC (Pre) 2019

(a) Construction of streets 

(b) Construction of pillars

(c) Construction of wells

(d) Construction of bows

12. From which archaeological site of Indus Valley Civilisation, the figures or models of boat are found?

UPPSC (Pre) 2022

(a) Harappa and Kot Diji 

(b) Kalibangan and Ropar

(c) Dholavira and Bhagatrav

(d)Mohenjodaro and Lothal

13. The shape of which tree is found in the seals from the Indus Civilisation?

MPPSC (Pre) 2022

(a) Mango

(b) Peepal

(c) Parijat

(d) Sal

14. Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched?

IAS (Mains) 2006

(a) Harappa                    Daya Ram Sahani

(b) Lothal                       - SR Rao

(c) Surkotada                   JP Joshi

(d) Dholavira                     BK Thapar

Know Right Answer

1 (a)

2 (b)

3 (c)

4 (d)

5 (d)

6 (b)

7 (b)

8 (d)

9 (d)

10 (c)

11 (b)

12 (d)

13(b)

14 (d)