The inception of modern India's history can be traced back to the arrival of Europeans on its shores. This pivotal moment occurred in 1498 when Vasco da Gama discovered a new maritime route to India via the Cape of Good Hope. Following this breakthrough, trade flourished, leading to the establishment of various commercial enterprises that sought to create trading hubs in India. As Europeans set foot in the region, a consequential development emerged – a political rivalry between different groups. Over time, Europeans, in order to safeguard their interests, began to intervene in and assert dominance over Indian politics.

The Dutch, English, French, Danish, and other prominent European powers gradually forged economic connections with the Indian Subcontinent. This article provides insights into the Advent of the Europeans in India UPSC notes, offering valuable information to aid in your preparation for the IAS exam.

Advent of Europeans in India

Numerous sites in the Indian subcontinent played pivotal roles as trading hubs in both ancient and medieval times. The exchange of goods between India and European nations thrived long before the formal establishment of British rule in India. The Oxus Valley, Egypt, and Syria served as crucial overland trade routes connecting India to Europe. The 15th century witnessed extensive exploration of Europe's land and waterways, further enhancing the trade links between the two regions.

In 1492, Christopher Columbus, an Italian explorer, is credited with the discovery of America, while in 1498, Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese explorer, established a new maritime route linking Europe and India. This breakthrough prompted various European trading firms to relocate to India and establish their operations. The European presence in India unfolded in successive stages.

Portuguese traders were the initial European arrivals in India, and they were succeeded by the British, Dutch, Danes, and French. Subsequently, these European powers developed aspirations for political dominance in India.

Advent of Europeans in India – New Routes

Owing to the heightened demand for European commodities, goods from India had to traverse multiple countries and pass through various intermediaries. These imported items were then subjected to tolls and charges imposed by rulers in the Middle East and North Africa. Consequently, European trading companies sought to establish their business centers within India to enhance profits, prompting them to sail directly to the region and resulting in the establishment of European companies in India.

However, maritime trade posed numerous challenges, including piracy and natural disasters. The conquests by Arabs in the seventh century disrupted the ancient trade routes through Egypt, the Persian Gulf, and Syria. This led to the monopolization of trade with India, with Indian goods being transported to marketplaces in the Levant.

Furthermore, the overland route was blocked when the Turks seized Constantinople in 1453. Venetian and Genoese merchants assumed control of the trade between Europe and Asia, refusing to share it with emerging nation-states in Western Europe, particularly Spain and Portugal.

Advent of Europeans in India Chronological Order

Advent of Europeans in India: Arrival of Portuguese

The initiation of European involvement in India can be attributed to the Portuguese, who were the first to discover a direct sea route to India. This pivotal development was marked by the establishment of a nautical school in Portugal by Prince Henry, the Navigator, heralding the commencement of the European Age of Discovery. The advancement of cutting-edge ships, including the Caravel, the Carrack, and the Galleon, by Portugal facilitated maritime navigation for the first time in history.

Under the Portuguese Empire, significant portions of the world's coastlines and maritime routes to both the East and West were mapped and explored. This era witnessed remarkable expeditions, such as the discovery of the sea route to India via the Cape of Good Hope. Vasco da Gama, who reached Calicut through the Cape of Good Hope in May 1498 and received a warm welcome from the local ruler, the Zamorin (Samoothiri), led the first Portuguese mission. The second mission was dispatched in 1500 under the command of Pedro Alvares Cabral.

As the pioneer European trading corporation, the Portuguese Enterprise established commercial stations in India, including trading outposts at Cochin, Goa, Daman and Diu, Salsette and Bassein, and Bombay. The Portuguese introduced the Cartaz System, a maritime trade license or permit, in the Indian Ocean during the sixteenth century (approximately 1502-1750) when the Portuguese Empire held sway.

With control over export-import activities across the Indian Ocean, the Portuguese implemented the Cartaz System strategically. Their influence in India brought about the initiation of tobacco cultivation, shipbuilding (in Gujarat and Calicut), and the utilization of the printing press. Furthermore, the Portuguese played a role in shaping Gothic architecture in India.

The Decline of the Portuguese

The influence of Portuguese trade with India waned at the outset of the 18th century, and this decline was attributable to various factors. These included their lack of tolerance for other religions, engaging in piracy in the Bay of Bengal, the succession of weak leaders following Albuquerque, the downfall of the Vijayanagara empire, conflicts with Spain, and the expanding presence of the English and the Dutch in India, among other reasons.

The disintegration of the Portuguese Empire in India stemmed from the ineffective leadership of governors who succeeded Afonso de Albuquerque. The Portuguese, characterized by religious intolerance and fanaticism, sought to impose Christianity forcefully on the native population. This approach starkly contrasted with the prevailing religious tolerance in India, leading to strong opposition from the local people.

Advent of Europeans in India: Arrival of British

The arrival of the British marked a pivotal moment in the unfolding history of Europeans in India. In 1599, a consortium of British merchants established the "Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading to the East Indies," exclusively for trading with India. Queen Elizabeth I granted the company a royal charter on December 31, 1600, conferring the right to engage in commerce solely with Eastern nations for a 15-year period.

In 1608, under the orders of James I of England, Captain William Hawkins was dispatched to Jahangir's court to seek permission for establishing trading posts in India. As the first British individual to reach India by sea, Hawkins faced initial opposition from the Portuguese and local traders in Surat. However, the tide turned in favor of the British after English captain Henry Middleton defeated the Portuguese naval contingent in the Battle of Bombay (1611), prompting the emperor's approval for British trading activities.

Subsequently, in 1613, the Mughal emperor granted an imperial firman, authorizing the establishment of the East India Company's factory in Surat. However, the British sought further concessions, leading to a second mission in 1615 under Sir Thomas Roe. This time, Jahangir granted permission for the construction of factories anywhere within the Mughal Empire. Consequently, British establishments were founded in Bharuch, Ahmedabad, and Agra.

The British set up their first factory in Masulipattam in 1611, followed by Surat in 1613, Madras in 1639, Hooghly in 1642, and Balasore in 1633. In 1691, a yearly payment of Rs 3000 secured the East India Company exclusive trading rights in Bengal without customs duties. The Subedar of Bengal, Azim Ush Shan, granted the British zamindari rights to Sutanuti, Kalikata, and Gobindpur, where the city of Calcutta and Fort William were established.

Additionally, in 1662, King Charles received Bombay as a dowry from the Portuguese, subsequently leasing it to the East India Company. The company obtained permission from the King of Chandragiri in 1639 to build a factory near Madras, where Fort St. George had already been erected. Emperor Farrukhsiyar, in 1717, reaffirmed the company's rights and granted new privileges, including the ability to trade tax-free from Bengal in exchange for an annual payment of Rs 3,000. Furthermore, the company gained the right to use the Bombay Mint for coin production, a set of privileges commonly known as "the Magna Carta of the East India Company."

Advent of Europeans in India: Arrival of Dutch

Furthermore, the Dutch established their trade centers in India, with Cornelis de Houtman being the first Dutchman to set foot in the country. In 1602, the Dutch East India Company, known as Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie (VOC), was founded. Successfully overcoming the Portuguese, they gained control of Indian regions renowned for spice cultivation. Trading posts were established in Gujarat, Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.

The inaugural Dutch factory was established in Masulipattam in 1605, followed by significant factories in Pulikat (1610), Surat (1616), Kasim Bazar, Patna, Balasore, Nagapattnam, and Cochin. The first Dutch factory in Bengal was founded in Peepli in 1627. The Dutch primarily traded in rice, opium, raw silk, indigo, and spices, with Pulicat initially serving as their major center until Nagapattinam eventually assumed its position.

The Dutch trading system operated on the cartel model, offering shareholders a groundbreaking 18% dividend, considered a pioneering development in commercial history. However, the Dutch encountered defeats in the Battle of Colachel in 1741 against the Travancore ruler Marthanda Verma and in the Battle of Bedara in 1759 against Robert Clive's British forces. The decline of the Dutch can be attributed to factors such as a faltering economy, excessive centralization, spice trade dominance, the relative weakness of the Dutch navy compared to the British, and other contributing factors.

The Decline of Dutch in India

English retaliation brought an end to Dutch aspirations in India, culminating in their defeat at the Battle of Hooghly in November 1759. Unlike the pursuit of imperial ambitions, the Dutch were primarily focused on trade in India. Their substantial profits came from their primary commercial interest in the Indonesian Spice Islands.

Advent of Europeans in India: Arrival of Danes

Denmark, known for its people as Danish or Danes, held colonial territories in India for a span of 225 years. Notable among these were the settlements of Tranquebar in Tamil Nadu, Serampore in Bengal, and the Nicobar Islands, all constituting part of Denmark's possessions in India, with Serampore serving as their Indian headquarters. Dutch explorer Marcelis de Boshouwer played a pivotal role in instigating Danish engagement in the Indian subcontinent.

Seeking armed assistance against the Portuguese, de Boshouwer proposed a promise of exclusive control over all business dealings in return. Christian IV, the King of Denmark-Norway, was persuaded by his rationale, leading to the authorization of the Danish East India Company with a 12-year trade monopoly between Denmark and Asia, as documented in a charter signed in 1616.

In 1799, Danish missionaries established the Serampore Mission Press in Serampore. Despite their efforts, the Danes couldn't firmly establish their presence in India, ultimately selling all their outposts to the British in 1845.

Advent of Europeans in India: Arrival of French

The French, being the final Europeans to set foot in India, conclude the list of the European advent in India. The French Trading Company, initiated in 1664 under the rule of Louis XIV and facilitated by his minister Colbert, operated under government supervision, funding, and control. The inaugural French factory in India was established by François Caron in Surat in 1667.

Subsequently, Marcara obtained approval from the Golkonda king to set up a factory in Masulipattam in 1669, while François Martin orchestrated the establishment of Pondicherry in 1673. The Nawab of Bengal, Shaista Khan, allocated a site in Chandranagar for the construction of a trading post.

In 1690, the French seized Chandranagore, located near Calcutta, from Governor Shaista Khan. Industries were developed by the French in Karaikal, Balasore, Mahe, and Qasim Bazar. The Anglo-French conflict ensued with the arrival of French administrator Joseph Francois Dupleix in India around 1742, leading to the culmination of the Carnatic wars.

The Decline of French in India

The restructuring of the French East India Company in 1720 was prompted by the diminishing French influence in India from 1706 to 1720. Governors Lenoir and Dumas, in the period between 1720 and 1742, successfully reinstated French power in India. In 1725, they gained control of Mahe in Malabar, Yanam in the Coromandel, and Karaikal in Tamil Nadu (1739). The onset of the Anglo-French conflict, also known as the Carnatic wars, leading to their eventual defeat in India, commenced in 1742 with the appointment of Dupleix as the French administrator in India.

Arrival of Europeans in India: Conclusion

Initially arriving in India for trade, Europeans eventually asserted control over the country's politics and administration. The Portuguese were the pioneers, embarking on their journey to India following Vasco da Gama's establishment of a direct maritime route in 1498. Subsequently, in 1600, Queen Elizabeth granted exclusive trading rights in the East to English merchants who formed the East India Company. This marked the beginning of British dominance in India, a period that lasted for more than 200 years.