Religion Notes

Defining religion and its characteristics 

Religion is a complex term that has been defined in many ways. It has evolved as a set of beliefs about the nature and purpose of the universe and has become an organized system of beliefs that bind groups of people into a close-knit society. In this article, we will explore some of the common definitions and characteristics of religion. 

Defining religion: Different perspectives 

• Max Muller - "Science of Religion": Religion is "a mental faculty or disposition which enables humans to apprehend the infinite."
• B. Taylor - "Primitive Culture": Religion is "a belief in spiritual beings."
• Hoffeding - "Religious Philosophy": Religion is "faith in the conservation of value."
• Galloway - "The Philosophy of Religion": Religion is "man’s faith in a power beyond himself whereby he seeks to satisfy emotional needs and gains stability of life and which he expresses in acts of worship and service."
• William James - "The Varieties of Religious Experience": Religion is "the feelings, acts and experiences of individual men in their solitude so far as they apprehend themselves to stand in relation to whatever they may consider the divine." 

Common characteristics of religion

• Ultimate concern: The object of faith in the religious sense is the ultimate concern of all religion.
• All-pervasive attitude: Religion includes all aspects of a human being at work and means an all-pervasive attitude to the whole reality, society, and one’s total relationship.
• Total self-involvement: Religion is a matter of human’s total self-involvement and full commitment to a certain field of action. Faith without actions is like a tree without fruits.
• Source of inspiration: Religion acts as a source of inspiration and encouragement in life to many. 

Religion in India 

Religion in India has never been static; various movements have developed with new ideas and in response to evolving socio-economic situations. Almost all major religions of the world are professed in this country. There are four religions that trace their origin to the Indian subcontinent- Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. Religious beliefs and systems that arrived from outside are Islam and Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, and Baha’i. 

Hinduism: Its Origin, Features, and Evolution 

Introduction

Hinduism is a religion that originated from the Vedas, which are considered as Sruti. This religion has evolved over the centuries, and it is now the third-largest religion in the world, with approximately 16% of the global population, or 1.25 billion people, being followers. 

Features of Hinduism 

• A. Basic ideas and tradition from the Vedas 
• B. Assimilation of practices and ways of other cults and earlier inhabitants 
• C. Fundamental goal is to achieve Moksha 
• D. Law of Karma 
• E. Concept of four stages of life 
• F. Leading life in a righteous (Dharma) manner 
• G. Upanishads 
• H. Emergence of six new systems of Hindu philosophy 
• I. Bhagvad Gita 
• J. Puranas and Smritis 
• K. Modern Hinduism 

Evolution of Hinduism 

• A. Shankara and his theory of Advaita or monism 
• B. Ramanuja and his Visishtadvaita or qualified monism 
• C. Madhva and his Dvaita or dualism philosophy 
• D. Bhakthi movement and the evolution of different religious sects 
• E. Influence of Islam 

Additionally, modern Hindu reformers like Swami Sivananda, Swami Chinmayananda, Sri Sri Ravi Shankar, and many others have played a significant role in spreading the message of Hinduism to a global audience and promoting its essential teachings. 

Moreover, Hinduism has also influenced other religions and philosophies across the world, including Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. The rich cultural and spiritual heritage of Hinduism continues to inspire people worldwide and contribute to the diverse cultural fabric of India. 

In conclusion, Hinduism has evolved over thousands of years, adapting to changing social, political, and cultural contexts. Despite facing challenges and criticism, it remains a vibrant and relevant religion that has contributed to the spiritual and intellectual development of humanity. By embracing its core teachings of universal love and brotherhood, Hindus can ensure that the religion continues to thrive and inspire future generations. 

Jainism and its Teachings

Introduction

Jainism is a religion that predates Aryan Brahmanism and believes in conquering oneself. 

Rishabha is the first Tirthankara mentioned in Jainism.  

Tirthankaras

• The Jain tradition has a succession of 24 Tirthankaras associated with Jainism.
• All Tirthankaras were believed to be Kshatriyas by birth.
• Vardhaman Mahavira:
  • Lived between (540-468 BC) and was the last Tirthankara.
  • He became an ascetic at the age of 30 and attained the highest spiritual knowledge at the age of 42.
  • After attaining Kaivalya Jnan, he was called Mahavira, Jina, Jitendriya, Nigrantha, and Kevalin.
  • He died aged 72 at Pava, near Rajagriha.

Teachings

• Jainism rejects the idea of a creator of the world and the authority of the Vedas.
• Humans may be good or bad according to their actions and not on account of their birth.
• Jains believe in karma and the transmigration of the soul.
• Salvation or nirvana comes on getting rid of the cycle of birth and rebirth by leading a pure life guided by the three-fold path of right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct. 
• Right conduct involves not stealing, non-possession, ahimsa, not lying, and controlling the senses.

Jainism Councils

First Jainism council: Held at Pataliputra in the 3rd century BC, presided by Sthulabahu. 

Second Jainism council: Held at Vallabhi in Gujarat in 512 AD, presided by Devardhigani, and the Angas were compiled during this time. 

Jains split into two groups- the Digambaras and Svetambaras. 

Difference between the two sects of Jainism

Digambara denies liberation in the physical sense, whereas salvation in the Svetambara has been accepted. 

Tirthankara Mallinath is said to be a man in Digambara, whereas, in Shwetambara Mallinath has been accepted as Mallikumari. 

Svetambaras believe that Mahavira married and a daughter was born to him, whereas Digambara believes Mahavira remained unmarried. 

Jainism's Influence

Jainism ideas such as Ahimsa have deeply influenced Indian culture. 

Jainism has also contributed to the development of language, literature, art, and architecture. 

Buddhism 

• The 6th century B.C. is known as a remarkable era in history, thanks to the presence of renowned thinkers like Buddha, Mahavira, Heraclitus, Zoroaster, Confucius, and Lao Tse, who preached their ideas during this period.
• Jainism and Buddhism were two successful schools of thought that had a significant impact on Indian society.
• One of the main aspects related to Buddhism is the life of Buddha, also known as Sakyamuni or Thathagata, who is considered the founder of Buddhism.
• He was born as Siddhartha to Suddhodhana, the ruler of the Sakyan republic, and his wife Maya, on Vaisaka Purnima in the Lumbini gardens near Kapilvastu in the 6th century BC. Siddhartha married Yashodhara and had a son, Rahula. However, he was dissatisfied with his luxurious lifestyle and was troubled by the signs of sickness, old age, and death that he observed in the worldly life. At the age of 29, he decided to leave the palace in search of peace and understanding of the world’s ills. He attained enlightenment at the age of 35, on Vaisaka Purnima, at what is now famously known as Bodh Gaya. He gave his first sermon in a deer park at Sarnath before his first disciples. Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana at Kusinara. 

Buddhism focuses on moral progress independent of any creator of the universe and does not concern itself with metaphysical controversies. The essence of Buddhism lies in the realization that life is transient, and Buddha seems to have accepted the idea of transmigration. The Four Noble Truths of Buddhism are the truth of suffering, the truth of the cause of suffering, the truth of the end of suffering, and the truth of the path that leads to the end of suffering. The path to nirvana or cessation of suffering is the Noble Eightfold Path: Right understanding (Samma ditthi), Right thought (Samma sankappa), Right speech (Samma vaca), Right action (Samma kammanta), Right livelihood (Samma ajiva), Right effort (Samma vayama), Right mindfulness (Samma sati), and Right concentration (Samma samadhi).

After Buddha’s death, four councils were held. 

The Tripiṭaka is composed of threemain categories of texts that collectively constitute the Buddhist canon: the Sutra Piṭaka (discourses and sermons of Buddha, some religious poetry and is the largest basket), the Vinaya Piṭaka (dealing with rules or discipline of the sangha) , and the Abhidhamma Piṭaka (treatises that elaborate Buddhist doctrines, particularly about mind, also called the “systematic philosophy” basket) 

Schools of Buddhism

Hinayana 

• It means ‘lesser path’.
• They are true to the teachings of Buddha.
• Its scriptures are in Pali.
• Doesn’t believe in idol worship.
• Salvation through self-discipline and meditation.
• It was patronized by Ashoka.

Mahayana 

• It means ‘Greater path’.
• Mahayana has two main philosophical schools – the Madhyamika & Yogachara.
• Its scriptures are in Sanskrit.
• It considers Buddha as God and worships idols of Buddhas & Bodhisattvas.
• Salvation can be attained by means of faith and devotion to the mindfulness of the Buddha. It believes in mantras. 

Vajrayana 

• It means “Vehicle of Thunderbolt”.
• Established in Tibet in 11th CE.
• It believes that salvation can be attained by acquiring magical powers called vajra.
• Much importance is given to the role of the guru called Lama who has mastered the philosophical and ritual traditions. There is a long lineage of lamas. The Dalai Lama is a well known Tibetan Lama. 

Similarities and differences between Jainism and Buddhism 

Similarities

• Both possessed the background of the Aryan culture and were inspired by the ascetic ideals and the philosophy of the Upanishads, particularly that of Sankhya-Yoga.
• Both were the products of intellectual, spiritual and social forces of their age and therefore, both stood up as revolts against the prevalent Brahmanical religion.
• Both emerged in eastern India which by that time had successfully retained some features of the pre-Aryan culture.
• Both were started by the members of the Kshatriya caste and both appealed to the socially down-trodden, the Vaishvas who were not granted social status corresponding to their growing economic power, and the Sudras who were definitely oppressed.
• Both, Mahavira and Buddha, the founders of Jainism and Buddhism respectively were Kshatriya princes and were able to get support for their cause from the contemporary ruling class, different Kshatriya rulers and economically prosperous Vaishvas.
• Though both did not attack the caste system, they were opposed to it and therefore, drew large converts from the lower strata of the society.
• Both opposed the ritualism and the sacrifices of Brahmanism and also challenged the supremacy of the Brahmanas.
• Both believed that Nirvana or salvation of an individual meant his or her deliverance from the eternal chain of birth and death.
• Both denied the authenticity of the Vedas as an infallible authority.
• Both laid great stress upon a pure and moral life rather than practice of ritualism or even devotion to and worship of God as a means to attain salvation. 

Differences 

• Jainism is a much more ancient religion as compared to Buddhism. According to Jaina traditions it had twenty-four Tirthankaras and Mahavira was the last of them.
• The Jaina concept of soul is different from that of Buddhism. Jainism believes that everything in nature, even stone and water has a soul of its own. Buddhism does not believe so.
• The concept of Ahimsa (non-violence) is different in Buddhism as compared to Jainism. While Jainism emphasized it very much, Buddhism remained liberal in its interpretation in foreign countries, and even permitted eating of animal flesh where it was a necessity or traditional diet of the people.
• Buddhism emphasized elimination of caste distinctions more as compared to Jainism.
• Jainism advised practice of strict asceticism to attain salvation while Buddhism advised its Upasakas to follow the middle path or Tathagata marga.
• According to Jainism, women and men householders cannot attain salvation while, according to Buddhism, it is possible for both.
• In Digambara sect of Jainism, it is necessary for the monks to go naked while Buddhism denounced it.
• Buddhism emphasized the organisation of Sangha more as compared to Jainism.
• According to Jainism, salvation is possible only after death while according to Buddhism it is possible during one’s own life if one is able to detach oneself completely from the worldly existence. Thus, while Jainism describes Nirvana as freedom from body. Buddhism describes it as destruction of the self or detachment from worldly existence.
• Buddhism proved more adaptable to circumstances as compared to Jainism. That is why while Buddhism spread all over Asia and accommodated the traditions of the local populace; Jainism remained confined to India alone. 

Buddhism and Bodhisattva 

• In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is any person who is on the path towards Buddhahood.
• In the Early Buddhist schoolsas well as modern Theravada Buddhism, a bodhisattva refers to anyone who has made a resolution to become a Buddha and has also received a confirmation or prediction from a living Buddha that this will be so.
• In Mahayana Buddhism, a bodhisattva refers to anyone who has generated Bodhicitta, a spontaneous wish and compassionate mind to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings.
• As a result, the universe is filled with a broad range of potential Buddhas; from those just setting out on the path of Buddhahood to those who have spent lifetimes in training and have thereby acquired supernatural powers. These “celestial” bodhisattvas are functionally equivalent to Buddhas in their wisdom, compassion, and powers.
• Pan-Buddhist bodhisattvas include Maitreya, who will succeed Sakyamuni as the next Buddha in this world, and Avalokiteshvara, known in Tibet as Spyan ras gzigs (Chenrezi), in China as Guanyin(Kuan-yin), and in Japan as Kannon.
• Although all bodhisattvas act compassionately, Avalokiteshvara is considered the embodiment of the abstract principle of compassion. Bodhisattvas of more localized importance include Tārā in Tibet and Jizō in Japan. 

Mudras in Buddhism 

Mudras are a non-verbal mode of communication and self-expression, consisting of hand gestures and finger postures. They are symbolic sign based finger patterns taking the place, but retaining the efficacy of the spoken word, and are used to evoke in the mind ideas symbolizing divine powers or the deities themselves. 

They are also used by monks in their spiritual exercises of ritual meditation and concentration, and are believed to generate forces that invoke the deity. 

While there are a large number of esoteric mudras, over time Buddhist art has retained only five of them for the representations of the Buddha. Images of the Buddha which exhibit mudras other than these are extremely rare. 

These five mudras are: 

Dharmachakra mudra 

• Dharmachakra in Sanskrit means the ‘Wheel of Dharma’.
• This mudra symbolizes one of the most important moments in the life of Buddha, the occasion when he preached to his companions the first sermon after his Enlightenment in the Deer Park at Sarnath.
• It thus denotes the setting into motion of the Wheel of the teaching of the Dharma.
• In this mudra the thumb and index finger of both hands touch at their tips to form a circle. This circle represents the Wheel of Dharma, or in metaphysical terms, the union of method and wisdom.
• The three remaining fingers of the two hands remain extended. These fingers are themselves rich in symbolic significance- the middle finger represents the ‘hearers’ of the teachings, the ring finger represents the ‘solitary realizers’, the Little finger represents the Mahayana or ‘Great Vehicle’.
• The three extended fingers of the left hand symbolize the Three Jewels of Buddhism, namely, the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha.
• This mudra is displayed by the first Dhyani Buddha Vairochana. Vairochana is believed to transform the delusion of ignorance into the wisdom of reality.

Bhumisparsha mudra 

• Literally Bhumisparsha translates into ‘touching the earth’. It is more commonly known as the ‘earth witness’.
• This mudra, formed with all five fingers of the right hand extended to touch the ground, symbolizes the Buddha’s enlightenment under the Bodhi tree, when he summoned the earth goddess, Sthavara, to bear witness to his attainment of enlightenment.
• It is in this posture that Sakyamuni overcame the obstructions of Mara while meditating on Truth.
• The second Dhyani Buddha Akshobhya is depicted in this mudra. He is believed to transform the delusion of anger into mirror-like wisdom. 

Varada mudra 

• This mudra symbolizes charity, compassion and boon-granting. It is the mudra of the accomplishment of the wish to devote oneself to human salvation.
• The five extended fingers in this mudra symbolize the following five perfections- Generosity, Morality, Patience, Effort, Meditative concentration.
• This mudra is rarely used alone, but usually in combination with another made with the right hand, often the Abhaya mudra.
• This combination of Abhaya and Varada mudras is called Segan Semui-in or Yogan Semui-in in Japan.
• Ratnasambhava, the third Dhyani Buddha displays this mudra. Under his spiritual guidance, the delusion of pride becomes the wisdom of sameness. 

Dhyana mudra 

• The Dhyana mudra may be made with one or both hands.
• When made with a single hand the left one is placed in the lap, while the right may be engaged elsewhere. The left hand making the Dhyana mudra in such cases symbolizes the female left-hand principle of wisdom.
• Ritual objects such as a text, or more commonly an alms bowl symbolizing renunciation, may be placed in the open palm of this left hand.
• The Dhyana mudra is the mudra of meditation, of concentration on the Good law, and of the attainment of spiritual perfection.
• This mudra is displayed by the fourth Dhyani Buddha Amitabha, also known as Amitayus. By meditating on him, the delusion of attachment becomes the wisdom of discernment. The Dhyana mudra helps mortals achieve this transformation. 

Abhaya mudra 

• Abhaya in Sanskrit means fearlessness. Thus, this mudra symbolizes protection, peace, and the dispelling of fear.
• In Gandhara art, this mudra was sometimes used to indicate the action of preaching.
• The Abhaya mudra is displayed by the fifth Dhyani Buddha, Amoghasiddhi. He is also the Lord of Karma in the Buddhist pantheon. Amoghasiddhi helps in overcoming the delusion of jealousy. 

Islam

• One of the major religions in the world.
• Founded by the Prophet Muhammad in Arabia in the 7th century CE.
• Arabic term 'Islam' means surrender.
• Muslims believe in one God, Allah, who is the creator, sustainer, and restorer of the world.
• The Quran is the sacred scripture of Islam and contains the will of Allah.
• Muslims believe that God sent a number of prophets to teach them how to live according to his law, including Jesus, Moses, Abraham, and the final prophet Muhammad.
• Basic tenets of Islam include belief in one God, belief in Muhammad as the final prophet, and belief in the life after judgment day.
• Muslims have certain duties, including five daily prayers, weekly Friday prayers, fasting during the month of Ramadan, a pilgrimage to Mecca, and charity to the poor and needy.
• There are two main sects in Islam: Sunni and Shia.
• Islam came to India with Arab traders on the west coast and spread across the land after the rising conquest by various Islamic rulers.
• Islam influenced Indian art and architecture and contributed to the Sufi movement.

Sufism

• Also known as Tasawwuf.
• Sufi schools are found in all sects of Islam.
• Sufism came to India in medieval times.
• Sufis focus on spiritual development of the person and service to humanity.
• Sufism aims to bridge the gulf between orthodoxy and the religion of faith and devotion.
• Stages of spiritual development for Sufis include repentance, abstinence, piety, poverty, patience, gratitude, fear, hope, contentment, and submission to divine will.
• Sufis discourage materialism.
• Music plays a prominent part in the life of a Sufi.
• Sufis are organized into various silsilahs, including the Chishti, Suhrawardi, Qadri, Shattari, Firdausi, and Naqshbandi orders.
• Various movements were started in India to reform or revive Islam, including the Ahmaddiya, Faraizi, Tariqah-i-Muhammadiyah, and Aligarh movements.

Christianity

• Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth in the 1st century CE.
• It has become the largest of the world’s religions and geographically, the most widely diffused of all faiths.
• Jesus Christ founded Christianity which spread throughout the Roman Empire where it was made state religion in 4th century.
• The church split into western under the people in Rome and eastern under the Patriarchates of Antioch, Alexandria and Constantinople. The Roman church was later broken up by Protestantism.
• According to the tradition of Saint Thomas Syrian Christians of Kerala, Christianity was introduced to India by Thomas the Apostle, who is said to have reached the Malabar Coast of Kerala in 52 AD.
• Christians are monotheistic, i.e., they believe there’s only one God, and he created the heavens and the earth. This divine Godhead consists of three parts: the father (God himself), the son (Jesus Christ) and the Holy Spirit.
• The Holy Bible includes important scriptures that outline Jesus’s teachings, the lives and teachings of Major Prophets and disciples, and offer instructions for how Christians should live. 
• Some of the main themes that Jesus taught, which Christians later embraced, include: Love God, Love your neighbor as yourself, Forgive others who have wronged you, Love your enemies, Ask God for forgiveness of your sins, Jesus is the Messiah and was given the authority to forgive others, Repentance of sins is essential, Don’t be hypocritical, Don’t judge others, The Kingdom of God is near. It’s not the rich and powerful—but the weak and poor—who will inherit this kingdom.
• Christian missionaries who came after colonial conquest in India played a prominent part in addressing some of the social evils present in the society.
• The emergence of Christianity also enriched the Indian culture and tradition. 

Zoroastrianism 

• Zoroastrianism or Mazdayasna is one of the world’s oldest continuously practiced religions based on the teachings of the Iranian-speaking prophet Zoroaster.
• Zoroastrians believe in one universal, transcendent, all-good, and uncreated supreme creator deity, Ahura Mazda or the “Wise Lord.”
• It is one of the world’s first monotheistic religions.
• Zoroastrian refugees, called Parsis, escaped Muslim persecution in Iran by emigrating to India.
• Fire is an important symbol of Zoroastrianism, representing light, warmth, and purifying powers. Some Zoroastrians also recognize the evergreen cypress tree as a symbol of eternal life.
• Fire and water are seen as symbols of purity in Zoroastrian religion.
• Zoroastrian places of worship are sometimes called fire temples, containing an altar with an eternal flame that burns continuously and is never extinguished.
• Zoroastrians give their dead “sky burials” by exposing their corpses to the elements in circular, flat-topped towers called dakhmas, or towers of silence.
• Vultures pick clean the bones which are then placed in lime pits called ossuaries. 

Judaism

• Judaism is one of the oldest major religions in the world, and it teaches belief in one God.
• It is the religion of the Jews, and both Christianity and Islam developed from it.
• The basic laws and teachings of Judaism come from the Torah, the first five books of the Hebrew Bible.
• Abraham, a Hebrew man, is considered the founder of Judaism as God revealed himself to him.
• The Talmud is a collection of legal, ethical, historical and folklore Jewish writings.
• Jews believe God communicates to them through prophets and rewards good deeds while punishing evil. 
• The Ten Commandments, which explain how Jews should live, were given to Moses by God on Mount Sinai.
• Shabbat is a day of rest and prayer for Jews, which begins on Friday at sunset and ends on Saturday at nightfall.
• India has two Jewish speaking communities: the Malayalam speaking Cochinis and the Marathi-speaking Bene Israel.
• Jewish people worship in synagogues and are led by spiritual leaders called rabbis.
• The Star of David is the symbol of Judaism.